Water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions in outbreak response: a synthesis of evidence
Travis Yates | Jelena Allen Vujcic | Myriam Leandre Joseph | Karin Gallandat | Daniele Lantagne
Water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) interventions are key to reducing the burden of disease associated with outbreaks, and are commonly implemented in emergency response. However, there is a lack of summarized evidence on the efficacy and effectiveness of these interventions. We conducted a systematic review of published and grey literature by developing theory of change models, developing inclusion criteria, conducting the search, selecting evaluations for inclusion, assessing the quality of the evidence, and analysing the included evaluations. Overall, 15,026 documents were identified and 51 evaluations from 47 studies met inclusion criteria. Interventions from 19 countries were included, primarily in response to cholera (86 per cent). Most included evaluations (70 per cent) were at high risk of bias and nearly half were from grey literature (49 per cent). We found that WASH interventions consistently reduced both the risk of disease and the risk of transmission in outbreak contexts; however, programme design and beneficiary preferences were important considerations to ensure WASH intervention effectiveness. Critical programme design characteristics included simple interventions that were appropriately timed, community-driven, and had linkages between relief and development. Beneficiary preferences, barriers, and facilitators to WASH interventions in outbreak response were taste and smell of water treatment, communication methods, inaccurate perception of efficacy, and trust/fear. Research on commonly implemented but severely under-researched WASH interventions is recommended. It is also recommended that responders implement interventions that are: efficacious, simple, well-timed, community-driven, link relief and development, and address barriers and facilitators to use with communities.ACF (2007) UNOCHA Emergency Funding Water and Sanitation Program in Kebri Dehar District, Somali Region, Action Contre La Faim – France.
ACF (2009) Household NFI Monitoring Report (PDM) May 2009, Action Contre La Faim – Zimbabwe.
ACF (2014a) Hygiene Kits Post Distribution Monitoring Report, Action Contre La Faim – South Sudan.
ACF (2014b) Projet Pilote de l’Approche de Marché Pour la Promotion du Chlore Liquide, Action Contre La Faim, Paris, France.
ACF (2015) Community Led Ebola Management and Eradication (CLEME) Trigger Behavioral Change to Strengthen Community’s Resilience to Ebola Outbreaks, Action Contre La Faim, Paris, France.
Ali, M., Lopez, A.L., You, Y.A., Kim, Y.E., Sah, B., Maskery, B. and Clemens, J. (2012) ‘The global burden of cholera’, Bulletin of the World Health Organisation 90: 209–18A <http://dx.doi.org/10.2471/BLT.11.093427>.
Baird, S., Ferreira, F.H., Özler, B. and Woolcock, M. (2013) ‘Relative effectiveness of conditional and unconditional cash transfers for schooling outcomes in developing countries: a systematic review’, Campbell Systematic Reviews 9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4073/csr.2013.8>.
Blanchet, K., Sistenich, V., Ramesh, A., Frison, S., Warren, E., Hossain, M., Knight, A., Lewis, C., Smith, J., Woodward, A., Dahab, M., Pantuliano, S. and Roberts, B. (2013) An Evidence Review of Research on Health Interventions in Humanitarian Crises, London: London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine.
Boccia, D., Guthmann, J.-P., Klovstad, H., Hamid, N., Tatay, M., Ciglenecki, I., Nizou, J.-Y., Nicand, E. and Guerin, P.J. (2006) ‘High mortality associated with an outbreak of hepatitis E among displaced persons in Darfur, Sudan’, Clinical Infectious Diseases 42: 1679–84 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/504322>.
Brown, J., Cavill, S., Cumming, O. and Jeandron, A. (2012) ‘Water, sanitation, and hygiene in emergencies: summary review and recommendations for further research’, Waterlines 31: 11–29 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2012.004>.
Cavallaro, E.C., Harris, J.R., Da Goia, M.S., Dos Santos Barrado, J.C., Da Nobrega, A.A., De Alvarenga Junior, I.C., Silva, A.P., Sobel, J. and Mintz, E. (2011) ‘Evaluation of pot-chlorination of wells during a cholera outbreak, Bissau, Guinea-Bissau, 2008’, Journal of Water and Health 9: 394–402 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2011.122>.
Colwell, R.R., Huq, A., Islam, M.S., Aziz, K.M., Yunus, M., Khan, N.H., Mahmud, A., Sack, R.B., Nair, G.B., Chakraborty, J., Sack, D.A. and Russek-Cohen, E. (2003) ‘Reduction of cholera in Bangladeshi villages by simple filtration’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 100: 1051–5 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0237386100>.
Conroy, R.M., Meegan, M.E., Joyce, T., McGuigan, K. and Barnes, J. (2001) ‘Solar disinfection of drinking water protects against cholera in children under 6 years of age’, Archives of Disease in Childhood 85: 293–5 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/adc.85.4.293>.
Contzen, N. and Mosler, H.-J. (2013) ‘Impact of different promotional channels on handwashing behaviour in an emergency context: Haiti post-earthquake public health promotions and cholera response’, Journal of Public Health 21: 559–73 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.04.009>.
Date, K., Person, B., Nygren, B., Were, V., Kola, S., Ayers, T. and Quick, R. (2013) ‘Evaluation of a rapid cholera response activity-Nyanza Province, Kenya, 2008’, Journal of Infectious Diseases 208: S62–8 <https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jit198>.
DeGabriele, J. and Musa, A. (2009) An Emergency Response to Humanitarian WASH-related Emergencies in Zimbabwe, Action Contre la Faim & Welthungerhilfe Zimbabwe.
Doocy, S. and Burnham, G. (2006) ‘Point-of-use water treatment and diarrhoea reduction in the emergency context: an effectiveness trial in Liberia’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 11: 1542–52 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3156.2006.01704.x>.
Dunoyer, J. and Sudre, B. (2012) Le choléra au Tchad en 2011 et les stratégies d’intervention associées, Action Contre la Faim – France.
Dunston, C., McAfee, D., Kaiser, R., Rakotoarison, D., Rambeloson, L., Hoang, A.T. and Quick, R.E. (2001) ‘Collaboration, cholera, and cyclones: a project to improve point-of-use water quality in Madagascar’, American Journal of Public Health 91: 1574–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.91.10.1574>.
Einarsdbttir, J., Passa, A. and Gunnlaugsson, G. (2001) ‘Health education and cholera in rural Guinea-Bissau’, International Journal of Infectious Diseases 5: 133–8 <https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1201-9712(01)90087-6>.
Gaffga, N.H., Tauxe, R.V. and Mintz, E.D. (2007) ‘Cholera: a new homeland in Africa?’ American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 77: 705–13 <https://dx.doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.2007.77.705>.
Garandeau, R., Trevett, A. and Bastable, A. (2006) ‘Chlorination of hand-dug wells in Monrovia’, Waterlines 24: 19–21 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/0262-8104.2006.008>.
Gartley, M., Valeh, P., De Lange, R., Dicarlo, S., Viscusi, A., Lenglet, A. and Fesselet, J.F. (2013) ‘Uptake of household disinfection kits as an additional measure in response to a cholera outbreak in urban areas of Haiti’, Journal of Water and Health 11: 623–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2013.050>.
Gauthier, J. (2014) A Real-time Evaluation of ACF’s Response to Cholera Emergency in Juba, South Sudan, Action Contre la Faim – International.
Gideon (2016) Global Infectious Disease and Epidemiology Online Network [online] <www.gideononline.com/> [accessed 8 November 2017].
Grayel, Y. (2011) Evaluation Externe Réponse d’Urgence à L’Epidémie de Choléra en Haïti, Action Contre la Faim – International (ACF – IN).
Grayel, Y. (2014) Programme D’Intervention Pour Limiter et Prevenir la Propagation de l’Epidemie du Cholera, Action Contre la Faim – International.
Guevart, E., Van Hecke, C., Noeske, J., Solle, J., Bita Fouda, A. and Manga, B. (2008) ‘Handmade devices for continuous delivery of hypochlorite for well disinfection during the cholera outbreak in Douala, Cameroon (2004)’, Medecine tropicale: revue du Corps de sante colonial 68: 507–13.
Hakim, M.S., Wang, W., Bramer, W.M., Geng, J., Huang, F., De Man, R.A., Peppelenbosch, M.P. and Pan, Q. (2016) ‘The global burden of hepatitis E outbreaks: a systematic review’, Liver International 37(1): 19–31 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/liv.13237>.
Higgins, J.P. and Green, S. (2008) Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions, Wiley Online Library.
Higgins, J.P. and Green, S. (2011) Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions, Version 5.1.0, updated March 2011, London: The Cochrane Collaboration.
Huq, A., Yunus, M., Sohel, S.S., Bhuiya, A., Emch, M., Luby, S.P., Russek-Cohen, E., Nair, G.B., Sack, R.B. and Colwell, R.R. (2010) ‘Simple sari cloth filtration of water is sustainable and continues to protect villagers from cholera in Matlab, Bangladesh’, MBio 1(1): 1–5 <http://doi:10.1128/mBio.00034-10>.
Imanishi, M., Kweza, P.F., Slayton, R.B., Urayai, T., Ziro, O., Mushayi, W., Francis-Chizororo, M., Kuonza, L.R., Ayers, T., Freeman, M.M., Govore, E., Duri, C., Chonzi, P., Mtapuri-Zinyowera, S., Manangazira, P., Kilmarx, P.H., Mintz, E., Lantagne, D. and Zimbabwe Typhoid Fever, O. (2014) ‘Household water treatment uptake during a public health response to a large typhoid fever outbreak in Harare, Zimbabwe’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 90: 945–54 <https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.13-0497>.
Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) (2014) Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation 2014 Update, Geneva, Switzerland.
Lantagne, D.S. and Clasen, T.F. (2012) ‘Use of household water treatment and safe storage methods in acute emergency response: case study results from Nepal, Indonesia, Kenya, and Haiti’, Environmental Science & Technology 46: 11352–60 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es301842u>.
Libessart, Y. and Hammache, Y. (2000) ‘Integrated chlorination campaign in Mogadeshu’, paper presented at 26th WEDC Conference, Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: Challenges of the Millennium, Dhaka, Bangladesh [pdf] <https://www.unicef.org/cholera/Annexes/Supporting_Resources/Annex_9/Libessart_WEDC_paper-pot_chlorinators.pdf> [accessed 21 November 2017].
Matemo, C. (2014) Use of H2S Tests to Monitor Water Quality in Insecure Environment, Action Contre la Faim – Kenya.
Mayne, J. (2011) ‘Results management: can results evidence gain a foothold in the public sector’, The Evidence Book 1: 117.
Meyer Capps, J. and Njiru, H. (2015) Open Defecation Status, Community-Led Total Sanitation and Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) in Voinjama and Kolahun Health Districts, Lofa County, Liberia (2014), Silver Spring, MD: Global Communities.
Mong, Y., Kaiser, R., Ibrahim, D., Rasoatiana, Razafimbololona, L. and Quick, R.E. (2001) ‘Impact of the safe water system on water quality in cyclone-affected communities in Madagascar’, American Journal of Public Health 91: 1577–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.91.10.1577>.
Neseni, N. and Guzha, E. (2009) Evaluation of the WASH Response to the 2008–2009 Zimbabwe Cholera Epidemic and Preparedness Planning for Future Outbreaks, Harare, Zimbabwe: Institute of Water and Sanitation Development.
Nielsen, C.F., Kidd, S., Sillah, A.R.M., Davis, E., Mermin, J. and Kilmarx, P.H. (2015) ‘Improving burial practices and cemetery management during an ebola virus disease epidemic – Sierra Leone, 2014’, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 64: 20–7.
Oxman, A.D. and GRADE Working Group (2004) ‘Grading quality of evidence and strength of recommendations’, BMJ 328: 1490–4.
Ramesh, A., Blanchet, K., Ensink, J.H.J. and Roberts, B. (2015) ‘Evidence on the effectiveness of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) interventions on health outcomes in humanitarian crises: a systematic review’, PLoS ONE 10: 1–20 <https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0124688>.
Rees-Gildea, P. (2013) Sierra Leone Cholera ERU Operation Review, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Cresent Societies (IFRC).
Rein, D.B., Stevens, G.A., Theaker, J., Wittenborn, J.S. and Wiersma, S.T. (2012) ‘The global burden of hepatitis E virus genotypes 1 and 2 in 2005’, Hepatology 55: 988–97 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hep.25505>.
Roberts, L., Chartier, Y., Chartier, O., Malenga, G., Toole, M. and Rodka, H. (2001) ‘Keeping clean water clean in a Malawi refugee camp: a randomized intervention trial’, Bulletin of the World Health Organization 79: 280–7.
Rowe, A.K., Angulo, F.J., Roberts, L. and Tauxe, R. (1998) ‘Chlorinating well water with liquid bleach was not an effective water disinfection strategy in Guinea-Bissau’, International Journal of Environmental Health Research 8: 339–40 <https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09603129873444>.
Ruiz-Roman, E. (2009) Evaluation of the Blanket Distribution of Nonfood Items as Part of the Cholera Response in Zimbabwe, Unicef Zimbabwe.
Simpson, R., Bazezew Legesse, N. and Mubayiwa, R. (2009) Real Time Evaluation of the Cholera Response in Zimbabwe, Oxfam International.
Smith, K.F., Goldberg, M., Rosenthal, S., Carlson, L., Chen, J., Chen, C. and Ramachandran, S. (2014) ‘Global rise in human infectious disease outbreaks’, Journal of The Royal Society Interface 11: 20140950 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2014.0950>.
Spencer, L., Ritchie, J., Lewis, J. and Dillon, L. (2003) Quality in Qualitative Evaluation: A Framework for Assessing Research Evidence, London: Government Chief Social Researcher’s Office.
Sphere Project (2011) Sphere Handbook: Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Disaster Response, Geneva, Switzerland: Sphere Project.
Spiegel, P.B., Le, P., Ververs, M.-T. and Salama, P. (2007) ‘Occurrence and overlap of natural disasters, complex emergencies and epidemics during the past decade (1995–2004)’, Conflict and Health 1: 1 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1752-1505-1-2>.
Steele, A., Clarke, B. and Watkins, O. (2008) ‘Impact of jerry can disinfection in a camp environment: experiences in an IDP camp in Northern Uganda’, Journal of Water and Health 6: 559–64 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2008.072>.
Taylor, D.L., Kahawita, T.M., Cairncross, S. and Ensink, J.H.J. (2015) ‘The impact of water, sanitation and hygiene interventions to control cholera: a systematic review’, PLoS ONE 10: 1–19 <https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0135676>.
Tokplo, H. (2015) Project de Reprise Communautaire de la Lutte Contre le Cholera et les Maladies Hydriques dans les Zones de Sante de Minova (Sud Kivu) et de Kirotshe (Nord Kivu), R.D. Congo, Action Contre la Faim – R.D. Congo.
UNICEF (2013) Cholera Toolkit 2013, New York: UNICEF.
Victora, C.G., Habicht, J.-P. and Bryce, J. (2004) ‘Evidence-based public health: moving beyond randomized trials’, American Journal of Public Health 94: 400–5.
Vujcic, J., Ram, P.K. and Blum, L.S. (2015) ‘Handwashing promotion in humanitarian emergencies: strategies and challenges according to experts’, Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 5(4): 574–85 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2015.009>.
Walden, V.M., Lamond, E.A. and Field, S.A. (2005) ‘Container contamination as a possible source of a diarrhoea outbreak in Abou Shouk camp, Darfur province, Sudan’, Disasters 29: 213–21 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0361-3666.2005.00287.x>.
Wall, I. and Chéry, Y.G. (2011) Ann Kite Yo Pale or Let Them Speak: Best Practice and Lessons Learned in Communication with Disaster Affected Communities, Haiti 2010 [pdf], BBC World Service Trust, UKaid, InternewsEurope <www.cdacnetwork.org/tools-and-resources/i/20140610200806-rzzty%20> [accessed 21 November 2017].
Waterkeyn, J., Okot, P. and Kwame, V. (2005) ‘Rapid sanitation uptake in the internally displaced people camps of northern Uganda through community health clubs’, paper presented at the 31st WEDC International Conference: ethe Benefits from Water and Environmental Sanitation, Kampala, Uganda [pdf] <https://wedc-knowledge.lboro.ac.uk/resources/conference/31/WaterkeynJ.pdf> [accessed 22 November 2017].
Watson, J.T., Gayer, M. and Connolly, M.A. (2007) ‘Epidemics after natural disasters’, Emerging Infectious Diseases 13: 1–5 <https://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1301.060779>.
WHO (2016a) ‘Cholera case fatality rate: situation and trends’ [online], WHO <www.who.int/gho/epidemic_diseases/cholera/case_fatality_rate_text/en/> [accessed 14 July 2016].
WHO (2016b) ‘Disease outbreaks’ [online], WHO <www.who.int/topics/disease_outbreaks/en/> [accessed 14 July 2016].
WHO (2016c) ‘Ebola situation reports’ [online], WHO <http://apps.who.int/ebola/ebola-situation-reports> [accessed 15 May 2016].
WHO (no date) ‘Guidance on communication with respect to safe drinking water and household hygiene: literature review, interviews and case studies’, Geneva: WHO.
Williams, H.A., Gaines, J., Patrick, M., Berendes, D., Fitter, D. and Handzel, T. (2015) ‘Perceptions of health communication, water treatment and sanitation in Artibonite department, Haiti, March-April 2012’, PLoS ONE 10: 1–17 <https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0142778>.
Yates, T., Vujcic, J., Leandre Joseph, M. and Lantagne, D. (2015a) Impact of WASH Interventions during Disease Outbreaks in Humanitarian Emergencies: A Systematic Review Protocol, Oxford, UK: Oxfam GB.
Yates, T.M., Armitage, E., Lehmann, L.V., Branz, A.J. and Lantagne, D.S. (2015b) ‘Effectiveness of chlorine dispensers in emergencies: case study results from Haiti, Sierra Leone, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Senegal’, Environmental Science & Technology 49: 5115–22 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b00309>.
Yates, T., Allen, J., Leandre Joseph, M. and Lantagne, D. (2017) WASH Interventions in Disease Outbreak Response, Humanitarian Evidence Program, Oxford, UK: Oxfam GB.
ACF (2007) UNOCHA Emergency Funding Water and Sanitation Program in Kebri Dehar District, Somali Region, Action Contre La Faim – France.
ACF (2009) Household NFI Monitoring Report (PDM) May 2009, Action Contre La Faim – Zimbabwe.
ACF (2014a) Hygiene Kits Post Distribution Monitoring Report, Action Contre La Faim – South Sudan.
ACF (2014b) Projet Pilote de l’Approche de Marché Pour la Promotion du Chlore Liquide, Action Contre La Faim, Paris, France.
ACF (2015) Community Led Ebola Management and Eradication (CLEME) Trigger Behavioral Change to Strengthen Community’s Resilience to Ebola Outbreaks, Action Contre La Faim, Paris, France.
Ali, M., Lopez, A.L., You, Y.A., Kim, Y.E., Sah, B., Maskery, B. and Clemens, J. (2012) ‘The global burden of cholera’, Bulletin of the World Health Organisation 90: 209–18A <http://dx.doi.org/10.2471/BLT.11.093427>.
Baird, S., Ferreira, F.H., Özler, B. and Woolcock, M. (2013) ‘Relative effectiveness of conditional and unconditional cash transfers for schooling outcomes in developing countries: a systematic review’, Campbell Systematic Reviews 9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4073/csr.2013.8>.
Blanchet, K., Sistenich, V., Ramesh, A., Frison, S., Warren, E., Hossain, M., Knight, A., Lewis, C., Smith, J., Woodward, A., Dahab, M., Pantuliano, S. and Roberts, B. (2013) An Evidence Review of Research on Health Interventions in Humanitarian Crises, London: London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine.
Boccia, D., Guthmann, J.-P., Klovstad, H., Hamid, N., Tatay, M., Ciglenecki, I., Nizou, J.-Y., Nicand, E. and Guerin, P.J. (2006) ‘High mortality associated with an outbreak of hepatitis E among displaced persons in Darfur, Sudan’, Clinical Infectious Diseases 42: 1679–84 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/504322>.
Brown, J., Cavill, S., Cumming, O. and Jeandron, A. (2012) ‘Water, sanitation, and hygiene in emergencies: summary review and recommendations for further research’, Waterlines 31: 11–29 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2012.004>.
Cavallaro, E.C., Harris, J.R., Da Goia, M.S., Dos Santos Barrado, J.C., Da Nobrega, A.A., De Alvarenga Junior, I.C., Silva, A.P., Sobel, J. and Mintz, E. (2011) ‘Evaluation of pot-chlorination of wells during a cholera outbreak, Bissau, Guinea-Bissau, 2008’, Journal of Water and Health 9: 394–402 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2011.122>.
Colwell, R.R., Huq, A., Islam, M.S., Aziz, K.M., Yunus, M., Khan, N.H., Mahmud, A., Sack, R.B., Nair, G.B., Chakraborty, J., Sack, D.A. and Russek-Cohen, E. (2003) ‘Reduction of cholera in Bangladeshi villages by simple filtration’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 100: 1051–5 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0237386100>.
Conroy, R.M., Meegan, M.E., Joyce, T., McGuigan, K. and Barnes, J. (2001) ‘Solar disinfection of drinking water protects against cholera in children under 6 years of age’, Archives of Disease in Childhood 85: 293–5 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/adc.85.4.293>.
Contzen, N. and Mosler, H.-J. (2013) ‘Impact of different promotional channels on handwashing behaviour in an emergency context: Haiti post-earthquake public health promotions and cholera response’, Journal of Public Health 21: 559–73 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.04.009>.
Date, K., Person, B., Nygren, B., Were, V., Kola, S., Ayers, T. and Quick, R. (2013) ‘Evaluation of a rapid cholera response activity-Nyanza Province, Kenya, 2008’, Journal of Infectious Diseases 208: S62–8 <https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jit198>.
DeGabriele, J. and Musa, A. (2009) An Emergency Response to Humanitarian WASH-related Emergencies in Zimbabwe, Action Contre la Faim & Welthungerhilfe Zimbabwe.
Doocy, S. and Burnham, G. (2006) ‘Point-of-use water treatment and diarrhoea reduction in the emergency context: an effectiveness trial in Liberia’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 11: 1542–52 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3156.2006.01704.x>.
Dunoyer, J. and Sudre, B. (2012) Le choléra au Tchad en 2011 et les stratégies d’intervention associées, Action Contre la Faim – France.
Dunston, C., McAfee, D., Kaiser, R., Rakotoarison, D., Rambeloson, L., Hoang, A.T. and Quick, R.E. (2001) ‘Collaboration, cholera, and cyclones: a project to improve point-of-use water quality in Madagascar’, American Journal of Public Health 91: 1574–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.91.10.1574>.
Einarsdbttir, J., Passa, A. and Gunnlaugsson, G. (2001) ‘Health education and cholera in rural Guinea-Bissau’, International Journal of Infectious Diseases 5: 133–8 <https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1201-9712(01)90087-6>.
Gaffga, N.H., Tauxe, R.V. and Mintz, E.D. (2007) ‘Cholera: a new homeland in Africa?’ American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 77: 705–13 <https://dx.doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.2007.77.705>.
Garandeau, R., Trevett, A. and Bastable, A. (2006) ‘Chlorination of hand-dug wells in Monrovia’, Waterlines 24: 19–21 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/0262-8104.2006.008>.
Gartley, M., Valeh, P., De Lange, R., Dicarlo, S., Viscusi, A., Lenglet, A. and Fesselet, J.F. (2013) ‘Uptake of household disinfection kits as an additional measure in response to a cholera outbreak in urban areas of Haiti’, Journal of Water and Health 11: 623–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2013.050>.
Gauthier, J. (2014) A Real-time Evaluation of ACF’s Response to Cholera Emergency in Juba, South Sudan, Action Contre la Faim – International.
Gideon (2016) Global Infectious Disease and Epidemiology Online Network [online] <www.gideononline.com/> [accessed 8 November 2017].
Grayel, Y. (2011) Evaluation Externe Réponse d’Urgence à L’Epidémie de Choléra en Haïti, Action Contre la Faim – International (ACF – IN).
Grayel, Y. (2014) Programme D’Intervention Pour Limiter et Prevenir la Propagation de l’Epidemie du Cholera, Action Contre la Faim – International.
Guevart, E., Van Hecke, C., Noeske, J., Solle, J., Bita Fouda, A. and Manga, B. (2008) ‘Handmade devices for continuous delivery of hypochlorite for well disinfection during the cholera outbreak in Douala, Cameroon (2004)’, Medecine tropicale: revue du Corps de sante colonial 68: 507–13.
Hakim, M.S., Wang, W., Bramer, W.M., Geng, J., Huang, F., De Man, R.A., Peppelenbosch, M.P. and Pan, Q. (2016) ‘The global burden of hepatitis E outbreaks: a systematic review’, Liver International 37(1): 19–31 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/liv.13237>.
Higgins, J.P. and Green, S. (2008) Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions, Wiley Online Library.
Higgins, J.P. and Green, S. (2011) Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions, Version 5.1.0, updated March 2011, London: The Cochrane Collaboration.
Huq, A., Yunus, M., Sohel, S.S., Bhuiya, A., Emch, M., Luby, S.P., Russek-Cohen, E., Nair, G.B., Sack, R.B. and Colwell, R.R. (2010) ‘Simple sari cloth filtration of water is sustainable and continues to protect villagers from cholera in Matlab, Bangladesh’, MBio 1(1): 1–5 <http://doi:10.1128/mBio.00034-10>.
Imanishi, M., Kweza, P.F., Slayton, R.B., Urayai, T., Ziro, O., Mushayi, W., Francis-Chizororo, M., Kuonza, L.R., Ayers, T., Freeman, M.M., Govore, E., Duri, C., Chonzi, P., Mtapuri-Zinyowera, S., Manangazira, P., Kilmarx, P.H., Mintz, E., Lantagne, D. and Zimbabwe Typhoid Fever, O. (2014) ‘Household water treatment uptake during a public health response to a large typhoid fever outbreak in Harare, Zimbabwe’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 90: 945–54 <https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.13-0497>.
Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) (2014) Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation 2014 Update, Geneva, Switzerland.
Lantagne, D.S. and Clasen, T.F. (2012) ‘Use of household water treatment and safe storage methods in acute emergency response: case study results from Nepal, Indonesia, Kenya, and Haiti’, Environmental Science & Technology 46: 11352–60 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es301842u>.
Libessart, Y. and Hammache, Y. (2000) ‘Integrated chlorination campaign in Mogadeshu’, paper presented at 26th WEDC Conference, Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: Challenges of the Millennium, Dhaka, Bangladesh [pdf] <https://www.unicef.org/cholera/Annexes/Supporting_Resources/Annex_9/Libessart_WEDC_paper-pot_chlorinators.pdf> [accessed 21 November 2017].
Matemo, C. (2014) Use of H2S Tests to Monitor Water Quality in Insecure Environment, Action Contre la Faim – Kenya.
Mayne, J. (2011) ‘Results management: can results evidence gain a foothold in the public sector’, The Evidence Book 1: 117.
Meyer Capps, J. and Njiru, H. (2015) Open Defecation Status, Community-Led Total Sanitation and Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) in Voinjama and Kolahun Health Districts, Lofa County, Liberia (2014), Silver Spring, MD: Global Communities.
Mong, Y., Kaiser, R., Ibrahim, D., Rasoatiana, Razafimbololona, L. and Quick, R.E. (2001) ‘Impact of the safe water system on water quality in cyclone-affected communities in Madagascar’, American Journal of Public Health 91: 1577–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.91.10.1577>.
Neseni, N. and Guzha, E. (2009) Evaluation of the WASH Response to the 2008–2009 Zimbabwe Cholera Epidemic and Preparedness Planning for Future Outbreaks, Harare, Zimbabwe: Institute of Water and Sanitation Development.
Nielsen, C.F., Kidd, S., Sillah, A.R.M., Davis, E., Mermin, J. and Kilmarx, P.H. (2015) ‘Improving burial practices and cemetery management during an ebola virus disease epidemic – Sierra Leone, 2014’, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 64: 20–7.
Oxman, A.D. and GRADE Working Group (2004) ‘Grading quality of evidence and strength of recommendations’, BMJ 328: 1490–4.
Ramesh, A., Blanchet, K., Ensink, J.H.J. and Roberts, B. (2015) ‘Evidence on the effectiveness of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) interventions on health outcomes in humanitarian crises: a systematic review’, PLoS ONE 10: 1–20 <https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0124688>.
Rees-Gildea, P. (2013) Sierra Leone Cholera ERU Operation Review, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Cresent Societies (IFRC).
Rein, D.B., Stevens, G.A., Theaker, J., Wittenborn, J.S. and Wiersma, S.T. (2012) ‘The global burden of hepatitis E virus genotypes 1 and 2 in 2005’, Hepatology 55: 988–97 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hep.25505>.
Roberts, L., Chartier, Y., Chartier, O., Malenga, G., Toole, M. and Rodka, H. (2001) ‘Keeping clean water clean in a Malawi refugee camp: a randomized intervention trial’, Bulletin of the World Health Organization 79: 280–7.
Rowe, A.K., Angulo, F.J., Roberts, L. and Tauxe, R. (1998) ‘Chlorinating well water with liquid bleach was not an effective water disinfection strategy in Guinea-Bissau’, International Journal of Environmental Health Research 8: 339–40 <https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09603129873444>.
Ruiz-Roman, E. (2009) Evaluation of the Blanket Distribution of Nonfood Items as Part of the Cholera Response in Zimbabwe, Unicef Zimbabwe.
Simpson, R., Bazezew Legesse, N. and Mubayiwa, R. (2009) Real Time Evaluation of the Cholera Response in Zimbabwe, Oxfam International.
Smith, K.F., Goldberg, M., Rosenthal, S., Carlson, L., Chen, J., Chen, C. and Ramachandran, S. (2014) ‘Global rise in human infectious disease outbreaks’, Journal of The Royal Society Interface 11: 20140950 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2014.0950>.
Spencer, L., Ritchie, J., Lewis, J. and Dillon, L. (2003) Quality in Qualitative Evaluation: A Framework for Assessing Research Evidence, London: Government Chief Social Researcher’s Office.
Sphere Project (2011) Sphere Handbook: Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Disaster Response, Geneva, Switzerland: Sphere Project.
Spiegel, P.B., Le, P., Ververs, M.-T. and Salama, P. (2007) ‘Occurrence and overlap of natural disasters, complex emergencies and epidemics during the past decade (1995–2004)’, Conflict and Health 1: 1 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1752-1505-1-2>.
Steele, A., Clarke, B. and Watkins, O. (2008) ‘Impact of jerry can disinfection in a camp environment: experiences in an IDP camp in Northern Uganda’, Journal of Water and Health 6: 559–64 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2008.072>.
Taylor, D.L., Kahawita, T.M., Cairncross, S. and Ensink, J.H.J. (2015) ‘The impact of water, sanitation and hygiene interventions to control cholera: a systematic review’, PLoS ONE 10: 1–19 <https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0135676>.
Tokplo, H. (2015) Project de Reprise Communautaire de la Lutte Contre le Cholera et les Maladies Hydriques dans les Zones de Sante de Minova (Sud Kivu) et de Kirotshe (Nord Kivu), R.D. Congo, Action Contre la Faim – R.D. Congo.
UNICEF (2013) Cholera Toolkit 2013, New York: UNICEF.
Victora, C.G., Habicht, J.-P. and Bryce, J. (2004) ‘Evidence-based public health: moving beyond randomized trials’, American Journal of Public Health 94: 400–5.
Vujcic, J., Ram, P.K. and Blum, L.S. (2015) ‘Handwashing promotion in humanitarian emergencies: strategies and challenges according to experts’, Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 5(4): 574–85 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2015.009>.
Walden, V.M., Lamond, E.A. and Field, S.A. (2005) ‘Container contamination as a possible source of a diarrhoea outbreak in Abou Shouk camp, Darfur province, Sudan’, Disasters 29: 213–21 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0361-3666.2005.00287.x>.
Wall, I. and Chéry, Y.G. (2011) Ann Kite Yo Pale or Let Them Speak: Best Practice and Lessons Learned in Communication with Disaster Affected Communities, Haiti 2010 [pdf], BBC World Service Trust, UKaid, InternewsEurope <www.cdacnetwork.org/tools-and-resources/i/20140610200806-rzzty%20> [accessed 21 November 2017].
Waterkeyn, J., Okot, P. and Kwame, V. (2005) ‘Rapid sanitation uptake in the internally displaced people camps of northern Uganda through community health clubs’, paper presented at the 31st WEDC International Conference: ethe Benefits from Water and Environmental Sanitation, Kampala, Uganda [pdf] <https://wedc-knowledge.lboro.ac.uk/resources/conference/31/WaterkeynJ.pdf> [accessed 22 November 2017].
Watson, J.T., Gayer, M. and Connolly, M.A. (2007) ‘Epidemics after natural disasters’, Emerging Infectious Diseases 13: 1–5 <https://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1301.060779>.
WHO (2016a) ‘Cholera case fatality rate: situation and trends’ [online], WHO <www.who.int/gho/epidemic_diseases/cholera/case_fatality_rate_text/en/> [accessed 14 July 2016].
WHO (2016b) ‘Disease outbreaks’ [online], WHO <www.who.int/topics/disease_outbreaks/en/> [accessed 14 July 2016].
WHO (2016c) ‘Ebola situation reports’ [online], WHO <http://apps.who.int/ebola/ebola-situation-reports> [accessed 15 May 2016].
WHO (no date) ‘Guidance on communication with respect to safe drinking water and household hygiene: literature review, interviews and case studies’, Geneva: WHO.
Williams, H.A., Gaines, J., Patrick, M., Berendes, D., Fitter, D. and Handzel, T. (2015) ‘Perceptions of health communication, water treatment and sanitation in Artibonite department, Haiti, March-April 2012’, PLoS ONE 10: 1–17 <https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0142778>.
Yates, T., Vujcic, J., Leandre Joseph, M. and Lantagne, D. (2015a) Impact of WASH Interventions during Disease Outbreaks in Humanitarian Emergencies: A Systematic Review Protocol, Oxford, UK: Oxfam GB.
Yates, T.M., Armitage, E., Lehmann, L.V., Branz, A.J. and Lantagne, D.S. (2015b) ‘Effectiveness of chlorine dispensers in emergencies: case study results from Haiti, Sierra Leone, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Senegal’, Environmental Science & Technology 49: 5115–22 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b00309>.
Yates, T., Allen, J., Leandre Joseph, M. and Lantagne, D. (2017) WASH Interventions in Disease Outbreak Response, Humanitarian Evidence Program, Oxford, UK: Oxfam GB.
ACF (2007) UNOCHA Emergency Funding Water and Sanitation Program in Kebri Dehar District, Somali Region, Action Contre La Faim – France.
ACF (2009) Household NFI Monitoring Report (PDM) May 2009, Action Contre La Faim – Zimbabwe.
ACF (2014a) Hygiene Kits Post Distribution Monitoring Report, Action Contre La Faim – South Sudan.
ACF (2014b) Projet Pilote de l’Approche de Marché Pour la Promotion du Chlore Liquide, Action Contre La Faim, Paris, France.
ACF (2015) Community Led Ebola Management and Eradication (CLEME) Trigger Behavioral Change to Strengthen Community’s Resilience to Ebola Outbreaks, Action Contre La Faim, Paris, France.
Ali, M., Lopez, A.L., You, Y.A., Kim, Y.E., Sah, B., Maskery, B. and Clemens, J. (2012) ‘The global burden of cholera’, Bulletin of the World Health Organisation 90: 209–18A <http://dx.doi.org/10.2471/BLT.11.093427>.
Baird, S., Ferreira, F.H., Özler, B. and Woolcock, M. (2013) ‘Relative effectiveness of conditional and unconditional cash transfers for schooling outcomes in developing countries: a systematic review’, Campbell Systematic Reviews 9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4073/csr.2013.8>.
Blanchet, K., Sistenich, V., Ramesh, A., Frison, S., Warren, E., Hossain, M., Knight, A., Lewis, C., Smith, J., Woodward, A., Dahab, M., Pantuliano, S. and Roberts, B. (2013) An Evidence Review of Research on Health Interventions in Humanitarian Crises, London: London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine.
Boccia, D., Guthmann, J.-P., Klovstad, H., Hamid, N., Tatay, M., Ciglenecki, I., Nizou, J.-Y., Nicand, E. and Guerin, P.J. (2006) ‘High mortality associated with an outbreak of hepatitis E among displaced persons in Darfur, Sudan’, Clinical Infectious Diseases 42: 1679–84 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/504322>.
Brown, J., Cavill, S., Cumming, O. and Jeandron, A. (2012) ‘Water, sanitation, and hygiene in emergencies: summary review and recommendations for further research’, Waterlines 31: 11–29 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2012.004>.
Cavallaro, E.C., Harris, J.R., Da Goia, M.S., Dos Santos Barrado, J.C., Da Nobrega, A.A., De Alvarenga Junior, I.C., Silva, A.P., Sobel, J. and Mintz, E. (2011) ‘Evaluation of pot-chlorination of wells during a cholera outbreak, Bissau, Guinea-Bissau, 2008’, Journal of Water and Health 9: 394–402 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2011.122>.
Colwell, R.R., Huq, A., Islam, M.S., Aziz, K.M., Yunus, M., Khan, N.H., Mahmud, A., Sack, R.B., Nair, G.B., Chakraborty, J., Sack, D.A. and Russek-Cohen, E. (2003) ‘Reduction of cholera in Bangladeshi villages by simple filtration’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 100: 1051–5 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0237386100>.
Conroy, R.M., Meegan, M.E., Joyce, T., McGuigan, K. and Barnes, J. (2001) ‘Solar disinfection of drinking water protects against cholera in children under 6 years of age’, Archives of Disease in Childhood 85: 293–5 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/adc.85.4.293>.
Contzen, N. and Mosler, H.-J. (2013) ‘Impact of different promotional channels on handwashing behaviour in an emergency context: Haiti post-earthquake public health promotions and cholera response’, Journal of Public Health 21: 559–73 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.04.009>.
Date, K., Person, B., Nygren, B., Were, V., Kola, S., Ayers, T. and Quick, R. (2013) ‘Evaluation of a rapid cholera response activity-Nyanza Province, Kenya, 2008’, Journal of Infectious Diseases 208: S62–8 <https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jit198>.
DeGabriele, J. and Musa, A. (2009) An Emergency Response to Humanitarian WASH-related Emergencies in Zimbabwe, Action Contre la Faim & Welthungerhilfe Zimbabwe.
Doocy, S. and Burnham, G. (2006) ‘Point-of-use water treatment and diarrhoea reduction in the emergency context: an effectiveness trial in Liberia’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 11: 1542–52 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3156.2006.01704.x>.
Dunoyer, J. and Sudre, B. (2012) Le choléra au Tchad en 2011 et les stratégies d’intervention associées, Action Contre la Faim – France.
Dunston, C., McAfee, D., Kaiser, R., Rakotoarison, D., Rambeloson, L., Hoang, A.T. and Quick, R.E. (2001) ‘Collaboration, cholera, and cyclones: a project to improve point-of-use water quality in Madagascar’, American Journal of Public Health 91: 1574–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.91.10.1574>.
Einarsdbttir, J., Passa, A. and Gunnlaugsson, G. (2001) ‘Health education and cholera in rural Guinea-Bissau’, International Journal of Infectious Diseases 5: 133–8 <https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1201-9712(01)90087-6>.
Gaffga, N.H., Tauxe, R.V. and Mintz, E.D. (2007) ‘Cholera: a new homeland in Africa?’ American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 77: 705–13 <https://dx.doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.2007.77.705>.
Garandeau, R., Trevett, A. and Bastable, A. (2006) ‘Chlorination of hand-dug wells in Monrovia’, Waterlines 24: 19–21 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/0262-8104.2006.008>.
Gartley, M., Valeh, P., De Lange, R., Dicarlo, S., Viscusi, A., Lenglet, A. and Fesselet, J.F. (2013) ‘Uptake of household disinfection kits as an additional measure in response to a cholera outbreak in urban areas of Haiti’, Journal of Water and Health 11: 623–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2013.050>.
Gauthier, J. (2014) A Real-time Evaluation of ACF’s Response to Cholera Emergency in Juba, South Sudan, Action Contre la Faim – International.
Gideon (2016) Global Infectious Disease and Epidemiology Online Network [online] <www.gideononline.com/> [accessed 8 November 2017].
Grayel, Y. (2011) Evaluation Externe Réponse d’Urgence à L’Epidémie de Choléra en Haïti, Action Contre la Faim – International (ACF – IN).
Grayel, Y. (2014) Programme D’Intervention Pour Limiter et Prevenir la Propagation de l’Epidemie du Cholera, Action Contre la Faim – International.
Guevart, E., Van Hecke, C., Noeske, J., Solle, J., Bita Fouda, A. and Manga, B. (2008) ‘Handmade devices for continuous delivery of hypochlorite for well disinfection during the cholera outbreak in Douala, Cameroon (2004)’, Medecine tropicale: revue du Corps de sante colonial 68: 507–13.
Hakim, M.S., Wang, W., Bramer, W.M., Geng, J., Huang, F., De Man, R.A., Peppelenbosch, M.P. and Pan, Q. (2016) ‘The global burden of hepatitis E outbreaks: a systematic review’, Liver International 37(1): 19–31 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/liv.13237>.
Higgins, J.P. and Green, S. (2008) Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions, Wiley Online Library.
Higgins, J.P. and Green, S. (2011) Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions, Version 5.1.0, updated March 2011, London: The Cochrane Collaboration.
Huq, A., Yunus, M., Sohel, S.S., Bhuiya, A., Emch, M., Luby, S.P., Russek-Cohen, E., Nair, G.B., Sack, R.B. and Colwell, R.R. (2010) ‘Simple sari cloth filtration of water is sustainable and continues to protect villagers from cholera in Matlab, Bangladesh’, MBio 1(1): 1–5 <http://doi:10.1128/mBio.00034-10>.
Imanishi, M., Kweza, P.F., Slayton, R.B., Urayai, T., Ziro, O., Mushayi, W., Francis-Chizororo, M., Kuonza, L.R., Ayers, T., Freeman, M.M., Govore, E., Duri, C., Chonzi, P., Mtapuri-Zinyowera, S., Manangazira, P., Kilmarx, P.H., Mintz, E., Lantagne, D. and Zimbabwe Typhoid Fever, O. (2014) ‘Household water treatment uptake during a public health response to a large typhoid fever outbreak in Harare, Zimbabwe’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 90: 945–54 <https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.13-0497>.
Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) (2014) Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation 2014 Update, Geneva, Switzerland.
Lantagne, D.S. and Clasen, T.F. (2012) ‘Use of household water treatment and safe storage methods in acute emergency response: case study results from Nepal, Indonesia, Kenya, and Haiti’, Environmental Science & Technology 46: 11352–60 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es301842u>.
Libessart, Y. and Hammache, Y. (2000) ‘Integrated chlorination campaign in Mogadeshu’, paper presented at 26th WEDC Conference, Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: Challenges of the Millennium, Dhaka, Bangladesh [pdf] <https://www.unicef.org/cholera/Annexes/Supporting_Resources/Annex_9/Libessart_WEDC_paper-pot_chlorinators.pdf> [accessed 21 November 2017].
Matemo, C. (2014) Use of H2S Tests to Monitor Water Quality in Insecure Environment, Action Contre la Faim – Kenya.
Mayne, J. (2011) ‘Results management: can results evidence gain a foothold in the public sector’, The Evidence Book 1: 117.
Meyer Capps, J. and Njiru, H. (2015) Open Defecation Status, Community-Led Total Sanitation and Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) in Voinjama and Kolahun Health Districts, Lofa County, Liberia (2014), Silver Spring, MD: Global Communities.
Mong, Y., Kaiser, R., Ibrahim, D., Rasoatiana, Razafimbololona, L. and Quick, R.E. (2001) ‘Impact of the safe water system on water quality in cyclone-affected communities in Madagascar’, American Journal of Public Health 91: 1577–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.91.10.1577>.
Neseni, N. and Guzha, E. (2009) Evaluation of the WASH Response to the 2008–2009 Zimbabwe Cholera Epidemic and Preparedness Planning for Future Outbreaks, Harare, Zimbabwe: Institute of Water and Sanitation Development.
Nielsen, C.F., Kidd, S., Sillah, A.R.M., Davis, E., Mermin, J. and Kilmarx, P.H. (2015) ‘Improving burial practices and cemetery management during an ebola virus disease epidemic – Sierra Leone, 2014’, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 64: 20–7.
Oxman, A.D. and GRADE Working Group (2004) ‘Grading quality of evidence and strength of recommendations’, BMJ 328: 1490–4.
Ramesh, A., Blanchet, K., Ensink, J.H.J. and Roberts, B. (2015) ‘Evidence on the effectiveness of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) interventions on health outcomes in humanitarian crises: a systematic review’, PLoS ONE 10: 1–20 <https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0124688>.
Rees-Gildea, P. (2013) Sierra Leone Cholera ERU Operation Review, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Cresent Societies (IFRC).
Rein, D.B., Stevens, G.A., Theaker, J., Wittenborn, J.S. and Wiersma, S.T. (2012) ‘The global burden of hepatitis E virus genotypes 1 and 2 in 2005’, Hepatology 55: 988–97 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hep.25505>.
Roberts, L., Chartier, Y., Chartier, O., Malenga, G., Toole, M. and Rodka, H. (2001) ‘Keeping clean water clean in a Malawi refugee camp: a randomized intervention trial’, Bulletin of the World Health Organization 79: 280–7.
Rowe, A.K., Angulo, F.J., Roberts, L. and Tauxe, R. (1998) ‘Chlorinating well water with liquid bleach was not an effective water disinfection strategy in Guinea-Bissau’, International Journal of Environmental Health Research 8: 339–40 <https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09603129873444>.
Ruiz-Roman, E. (2009) Evaluation of the Blanket Distribution of Nonfood Items as Part of the Cholera Response in Zimbabwe, Unicef Zimbabwe.
Simpson, R., Bazezew Legesse, N. and Mubayiwa, R. (2009) Real Time Evaluation of the Cholera Response in Zimbabwe, Oxfam International.
Smith, K.F., Goldberg, M., Rosenthal, S., Carlson, L., Chen, J., Chen, C. and Ramachandran, S. (2014) ‘Global rise in human infectious disease outbreaks’, Journal of The Royal Society Interface 11: 20140950 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2014.0950>.
Spencer, L., Ritchie, J., Lewis, J. and Dillon, L. (2003) Quality in Qualitative Evaluation: A Framework for Assessing Research Evidence, London: Government Chief Social Researcher’s Office.
Sphere Project (2011) Sphere Handbook: Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Disaster Response, Geneva, Switzerland: Sphere Project.
Spiegel, P.B., Le, P., Ververs, M.-T. and Salama, P. (2007) ‘Occurrence and overlap of natural disasters, complex emergencies and epidemics during the past decade (1995–2004)’, Conflict and Health 1: 1 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1752-1505-1-2>.
Steele, A., Clarke, B. and Watkins, O. (2008) ‘Impact of jerry can disinfection in a camp environment: experiences in an IDP camp in Northern Uganda’, Journal of Water and Health 6: 559–64 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2008.072>.
Taylor, D.L., Kahawita, T.M., Cairncross, S. and Ensink, J.H.J. (2015) ‘The impact of water, sanitation and hygiene interventions to control cholera: a systematic review’, PLoS ONE 10: 1–19 <https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0135676>.
Tokplo, H. (2015) Project de Reprise Communautaire de la Lutte Contre le Cholera et les Maladies Hydriques dans les Zones de Sante de Minova (Sud Kivu) et de Kirotshe (Nord Kivu), R.D. Congo, Action Contre la Faim – R.D. Congo.
UNICEF (2013) Cholera Toolkit 2013, New York: UNICEF.
Victora, C.G., Habicht, J.-P. and Bryce, J. (2004) ‘Evidence-based public health: moving beyond randomized trials’, American Journal of Public Health 94: 400–5.
Vujcic, J., Ram, P.K. and Blum, L.S. (2015) ‘Handwashing promotion in humanitarian emergencies: strategies and challenges according to experts’, Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 5(4): 574–85 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2015.009>.
Walden, V.M., Lamond, E.A. and Field, S.A. (2005) ‘Container contamination as a possible source of a diarrhoea outbreak in Abou Shouk camp, Darfur province, Sudan’, Disasters 29: 213–21 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0361-3666.2005.00287.x>.
Wall, I. and Chéry, Y.G. (2011) Ann Kite Yo Pale or Let Them Speak: Best Practice and Lessons Learned in Communication with Disaster Affected Communities, Haiti 2010 [pdf], BBC World Service Trust, UKaid, InternewsEurope <www.cdacnetwork.org/tools-and-resources/i/20140610200806-rzzty%20> [accessed 21 November 2017].
Waterkeyn, J., Okot, P. and Kwame, V. (2005) ‘Rapid sanitation uptake in the internally displaced people camps of northern Uganda through community health clubs’, paper presented at the 31st WEDC International Conference: ethe Benefits from Water and Environmental Sanitation, Kampala, Uganda [pdf] <https://wedc-knowledge.lboro.ac.uk/resources/conference/31/WaterkeynJ.pdf> [accessed 22 November 2017].
Watson, J.T., Gayer, M. and Connolly, M.A. (2007) ‘Epidemics after natural disasters’, Emerging Infectious Diseases 13: 1–5 <https://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1301.060779>.
WHO (2016a) ‘Cholera case fatality rate: situation and trends’ [online], WHO <www.who.int/gho/epidemic_diseases/cholera/case_fatality_rate_text/en/> [accessed 14 July 2016].
WHO (2016b) ‘Disease outbreaks’ [online], WHO <www.who.int/topics/disease_outbreaks/en/> [accessed 14 July 2016].
WHO (2016c) ‘Ebola situation reports’ [online], WHO <http://apps.who.int/ebola/ebola-situation-reports> [accessed 15 May 2016].
WHO (no date) ‘Guidance on communication with respect to safe drinking water and household hygiene: literature review, interviews and case studies’, Geneva: WHO.
Williams, H.A., Gaines, J., Patrick, M., Berendes, D., Fitter, D. and Handzel, T. (2015) ‘Perceptions of health communication, water treatment and sanitation in Artibonite department, Haiti, March-April 2012’, PLoS ONE 10: 1–17 <https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0142778>.
Yates, T., Vujcic, J., Leandre Joseph, M. and Lantagne, D. (2015a) Impact of WASH Interventions during Disease Outbreaks in Humanitarian Emergencies: A Systematic Review Protocol, Oxford, UK: Oxfam GB.
Yates, T.M., Armitage, E., Lehmann, L.V., Branz, A.J. and Lantagne, D.S. (2015b) ‘Effectiveness of chlorine dispensers in emergencies: case study results from Haiti, Sierra Leone, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Senegal’, Environmental Science & Technology 49: 5115–22 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b00309>.
Yates, T., Allen, J., Leandre Joseph, M. and Lantagne, D. (2017) WASH Interventions in Disease Outbreak Response, Humanitarian Evidence Program, Oxford, UK: Oxfam GB.
ACF (2007) UNOCHA Emergency Funding Water and Sanitation Program in Kebri Dehar District, Somali Region, Action Contre La Faim – France.
ACF (2009) Household NFI Monitoring Report (PDM) May 2009, Action Contre La Faim – Zimbabwe.
ACF (2014a) Hygiene Kits Post Distribution Monitoring Report, Action Contre La Faim – South Sudan.
ACF (2014b) Projet Pilote de l’Approche de Marché Pour la Promotion du Chlore Liquide, Action Contre La Faim, Paris, France.
ACF (2015) Community Led Ebola Management and Eradication (CLEME) Trigger Behavioral Change to Strengthen Community’s Resilience to Ebola Outbreaks, Action Contre La Faim, Paris, France.
Ali, M., Lopez, A.L., You, Y.A., Kim, Y.E., Sah, B., Maskery, B. and Clemens, J. (2012) ‘The global burden of cholera’, Bulletin of the World Health Organisation 90: 209–18A <http://dx.doi.org/10.2471/BLT.11.093427>.
Baird, S., Ferreira, F.H., Özler, B. and Woolcock, M. (2013) ‘Relative effectiveness of conditional and unconditional cash transfers for schooling outcomes in developing countries: a systematic review’, Campbell Systematic Reviews 9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4073/csr.2013.8>.
Blanchet, K., Sistenich, V., Ramesh, A., Frison, S., Warren, E., Hossain, M., Knight, A., Lewis, C., Smith, J., Woodward, A., Dahab, M., Pantuliano, S. and Roberts, B. (2013) An Evidence Review of Research on Health Interventions in Humanitarian Crises, London: London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine.
Boccia, D., Guthmann, J.-P., Klovstad, H., Hamid, N., Tatay, M., Ciglenecki, I., Nizou, J.-Y., Nicand, E. and Guerin, P.J. (2006) ‘High mortality associated with an outbreak of hepatitis E among displaced persons in Darfur, Sudan’, Clinical Infectious Diseases 42: 1679–84 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/504322>.
Brown, J., Cavill, S., Cumming, O. and Jeandron, A. (2012) ‘Water, sanitation, and hygiene in emergencies: summary review and recommendations for further research’, Waterlines 31: 11–29 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2012.004>.
Cavallaro, E.C., Harris, J.R., Da Goia, M.S., Dos Santos Barrado, J.C., Da Nobrega, A.A., De Alvarenga Junior, I.C., Silva, A.P., Sobel, J. and Mintz, E. (2011) ‘Evaluation of pot-chlorination of wells during a cholera outbreak, Bissau, Guinea-Bissau, 2008’, Journal of Water and Health 9: 394–402 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2011.122>.
Colwell, R.R., Huq, A., Islam, M.S., Aziz, K.M., Yunus, M., Khan, N.H., Mahmud, A., Sack, R.B., Nair, G.B., Chakraborty, J., Sack, D.A. and Russek-Cohen, E. (2003) ‘Reduction of cholera in Bangladeshi villages by simple filtration’, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA 100: 1051–5 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0237386100>.
Conroy, R.M., Meegan, M.E., Joyce, T., McGuigan, K. and Barnes, J. (2001) ‘Solar disinfection of drinking water protects against cholera in children under 6 years of age’, Archives of Disease in Childhood 85: 293–5 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/adc.85.4.293>.
Contzen, N. and Mosler, H.-J. (2013) ‘Impact of different promotional channels on handwashing behaviour in an emergency context: Haiti post-earthquake public health promotions and cholera response’, Journal of Public Health 21: 559–73 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2012.04.009>.
Date, K., Person, B., Nygren, B., Were, V., Kola, S., Ayers, T. and Quick, R. (2013) ‘Evaluation of a rapid cholera response activity-Nyanza Province, Kenya, 2008’, Journal of Infectious Diseases 208: S62–8 <https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jit198>.
DeGabriele, J. and Musa, A. (2009) An Emergency Response to Humanitarian WASH-related Emergencies in Zimbabwe, Action Contre la Faim & Welthungerhilfe Zimbabwe.
Doocy, S. and Burnham, G. (2006) ‘Point-of-use water treatment and diarrhoea reduction in the emergency context: an effectiveness trial in Liberia’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 11: 1542–52 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3156.2006.01704.x>.
Dunoyer, J. and Sudre, B. (2012) Le choléra au Tchad en 2011 et les stratégies d’intervention associées, Action Contre la Faim – France.
Dunston, C., McAfee, D., Kaiser, R., Rakotoarison, D., Rambeloson, L., Hoang, A.T. and Quick, R.E. (2001) ‘Collaboration, cholera, and cyclones: a project to improve point-of-use water quality in Madagascar’, American Journal of Public Health 91: 1574–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.91.10.1574>.
Einarsdbttir, J., Passa, A. and Gunnlaugsson, G. (2001) ‘Health education and cholera in rural Guinea-Bissau’, International Journal of Infectious Diseases 5: 133–8 <https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1201-9712(01)90087-6>.
Gaffga, N.H., Tauxe, R.V. and Mintz, E.D. (2007) ‘Cholera: a new homeland in Africa?’ American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 77: 705–13 <https://dx.doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.2007.77.705>.
Garandeau, R., Trevett, A. and Bastable, A. (2006) ‘Chlorination of hand-dug wells in Monrovia’, Waterlines 24: 19–21 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/0262-8104.2006.008>.
Gartley, M., Valeh, P., De Lange, R., Dicarlo, S., Viscusi, A., Lenglet, A. and Fesselet, J.F. (2013) ‘Uptake of household disinfection kits as an additional measure in response to a cholera outbreak in urban areas of Haiti’, Journal of Water and Health 11: 623–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2013.050>.
Gauthier, J. (2014) A Real-time Evaluation of ACF’s Response to Cholera Emergency in Juba, South Sudan, Action Contre la Faim – International.
Gideon (2016) Global Infectious Disease and Epidemiology Online Network [online] <www.gideononline.com/> [accessed 8 November 2017].
Grayel, Y. (2011) Evaluation Externe Réponse d’Urgence à L’Epidémie de Choléra en Haïti, Action Contre la Faim – International (ACF – IN).
Grayel, Y. (2014) Programme D’Intervention Pour Limiter et Prevenir la Propagation de l’Epidemie du Cholera, Action Contre la Faim – International.
Guevart, E., Van Hecke, C., Noeske, J., Solle, J., Bita Fouda, A. and Manga, B. (2008) ‘Handmade devices for continuous delivery of hypochlorite for well disinfection during the cholera outbreak in Douala, Cameroon (2004)’, Medecine tropicale: revue du Corps de sante colonial 68: 507–13.
Hakim, M.S., Wang, W., Bramer, W.M., Geng, J., Huang, F., De Man, R.A., Peppelenbosch, M.P. and Pan, Q. (2016) ‘The global burden of hepatitis E outbreaks: a systematic review’, Liver International 37(1): 19–31 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/liv.13237>.
Higgins, J.P. and Green, S. (2008) Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions, Wiley Online Library.
Higgins, J.P. and Green, S. (2011) Cochrane Handbook for Systematic Reviews of Interventions, Version 5.1.0, updated March 2011, London: The Cochrane Collaboration.
Huq, A., Yunus, M., Sohel, S.S., Bhuiya, A., Emch, M., Luby, S.P., Russek-Cohen, E., Nair, G.B., Sack, R.B. and Colwell, R.R. (2010) ‘Simple sari cloth filtration of water is sustainable and continues to protect villagers from cholera in Matlab, Bangladesh’, MBio 1(1): 1–5 <http://doi:10.1128/mBio.00034-10>.
Imanishi, M., Kweza, P.F., Slayton, R.B., Urayai, T., Ziro, O., Mushayi, W., Francis-Chizororo, M., Kuonza, L.R., Ayers, T., Freeman, M.M., Govore, E., Duri, C., Chonzi, P., Mtapuri-Zinyowera, S., Manangazira, P., Kilmarx, P.H., Mintz, E., Lantagne, D. and Zimbabwe Typhoid Fever, O. (2014) ‘Household water treatment uptake during a public health response to a large typhoid fever outbreak in Harare, Zimbabwe’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 90: 945–54 <https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.13-0497>.
Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) (2014) Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation 2014 Update, Geneva, Switzerland.
Lantagne, D.S. and Clasen, T.F. (2012) ‘Use of household water treatment and safe storage methods in acute emergency response: case study results from Nepal, Indonesia, Kenya, and Haiti’, Environmental Science & Technology 46: 11352–60 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es301842u>.
Libessart, Y. and Hammache, Y. (2000) ‘Integrated chlorination campaign in Mogadeshu’, paper presented at 26th WEDC Conference, Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: Challenges of the Millennium, Dhaka, Bangladesh [pdf] <https://www.unicef.org/cholera/Annexes/Supporting_Resources/Annex_9/Libessart_WEDC_paper-pot_chlorinators.pdf> [accessed 21 November 2017].
Matemo, C. (2014) Use of H2S Tests to Monitor Water Quality in Insecure Environment, Action Contre la Faim – Kenya.
Mayne, J. (2011) ‘Results management: can results evidence gain a foothold in the public sector’, The Evidence Book 1: 117.
Meyer Capps, J. and Njiru, H. (2015) Open Defecation Status, Community-Led Total Sanitation and Ebola Virus Disease (EVD) in Voinjama and Kolahun Health Districts, Lofa County, Liberia (2014), Silver Spring, MD: Global Communities.
Mong, Y., Kaiser, R., Ibrahim, D., Rasoatiana, Razafimbololona, L. and Quick, R.E. (2001) ‘Impact of the safe water system on water quality in cyclone-affected communities in Madagascar’, American Journal of Public Health 91: 1577–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.91.10.1577>.
Neseni, N. and Guzha, E. (2009) Evaluation of the WASH Response to the 2008–2009 Zimbabwe Cholera Epidemic and Preparedness Planning for Future Outbreaks, Harare, Zimbabwe: Institute of Water and Sanitation Development.
Nielsen, C.F., Kidd, S., Sillah, A.R.M., Davis, E., Mermin, J. and Kilmarx, P.H. (2015) ‘Improving burial practices and cemetery management during an ebola virus disease epidemic – Sierra Leone, 2014’, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 64: 20–7.
Oxman, A.D. and GRADE Working Group (2004) ‘Grading quality of evidence and strength of recommendations’, BMJ 328: 1490–4.
Ramesh, A., Blanchet, K., Ensink, J.H.J. and Roberts, B. (2015) ‘Evidence on the effectiveness of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) interventions on health outcomes in humanitarian crises: a systematic review’, PLoS ONE 10: 1–20 <https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0124688>.
Rees-Gildea, P. (2013) Sierra Leone Cholera ERU Operation Review, International Federation of Red Cross and Red Cresent Societies (IFRC).
Rein, D.B., Stevens, G.A., Theaker, J., Wittenborn, J.S. and Wiersma, S.T. (2012) ‘The global burden of hepatitis E virus genotypes 1 and 2 in 2005’, Hepatology 55: 988–97 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hep.25505>.
Roberts, L., Chartier, Y., Chartier, O., Malenga, G., Toole, M. and Rodka, H. (2001) ‘Keeping clean water clean in a Malawi refugee camp: a randomized intervention trial’, Bulletin of the World Health Organization 79: 280–7.
Rowe, A.K., Angulo, F.J., Roberts, L. and Tauxe, R. (1998) ‘Chlorinating well water with liquid bleach was not an effective water disinfection strategy in Guinea-Bissau’, International Journal of Environmental Health Research 8: 339–40 <https://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09603129873444>.
Ruiz-Roman, E. (2009) Evaluation of the Blanket Distribution of Nonfood Items as Part of the Cholera Response in Zimbabwe, Unicef Zimbabwe.
Simpson, R., Bazezew Legesse, N. and Mubayiwa, R. (2009) Real Time Evaluation of the Cholera Response in Zimbabwe, Oxfam International.
Smith, K.F., Goldberg, M., Rosenthal, S., Carlson, L., Chen, J., Chen, C. and Ramachandran, S. (2014) ‘Global rise in human infectious disease outbreaks’, Journal of The Royal Society Interface 11: 20140950 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2014.0950>.
Spencer, L., Ritchie, J., Lewis, J. and Dillon, L. (2003) Quality in Qualitative Evaluation: A Framework for Assessing Research Evidence, London: Government Chief Social Researcher’s Office.
Sphere Project (2011) Sphere Handbook: Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Disaster Response, Geneva, Switzerland: Sphere Project.
Spiegel, P.B., Le, P., Ververs, M.-T. and Salama, P. (2007) ‘Occurrence and overlap of natural disasters, complex emergencies and epidemics during the past decade (1995–2004)’, Conflict and Health 1: 1 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1752-1505-1-2>.
Steele, A., Clarke, B. and Watkins, O. (2008) ‘Impact of jerry can disinfection in a camp environment: experiences in an IDP camp in Northern Uganda’, Journal of Water and Health 6: 559–64 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2008.072>.
Taylor, D.L., Kahawita, T.M., Cairncross, S. and Ensink, J.H.J. (2015) ‘The impact of water, sanitation and hygiene interventions to control cholera: a systematic review’, PLoS ONE 10: 1–19 <https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0135676>.
Tokplo, H. (2015) Project de Reprise Communautaire de la Lutte Contre le Cholera et les Maladies Hydriques dans les Zones de Sante de Minova (Sud Kivu) et de Kirotshe (Nord Kivu), R.D. Congo, Action Contre la Faim – R.D. Congo.
UNICEF (2013) Cholera Toolkit 2013, New York: UNICEF.
Victora, C.G., Habicht, J.-P. and Bryce, J. (2004) ‘Evidence-based public health: moving beyond randomized trials’, American Journal of Public Health 94: 400–5.
Vujcic, J., Ram, P.K. and Blum, L.S. (2015) ‘Handwashing promotion in humanitarian emergencies: strategies and challenges according to experts’, Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 5(4): 574–85 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2015.009>.
Walden, V.M., Lamond, E.A. and Field, S.A. (2005) ‘Container contamination as a possible source of a diarrhoea outbreak in Abou Shouk camp, Darfur province, Sudan’, Disasters 29: 213–21 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0361-3666.2005.00287.x>.
Wall, I. and Chéry, Y.G. (2011) Ann Kite Yo Pale or Let Them Speak: Best Practice and Lessons Learned in Communication with Disaster Affected Communities, Haiti 2010 [pdf], BBC World Service Trust, UKaid, InternewsEurope <www.cdacnetwork.org/tools-and-resources/i/20140610200806-rzzty%20> [accessed 21 November 2017].
Waterkeyn, J., Okot, P. and Kwame, V. (2005) ‘Rapid sanitation uptake in the internally displaced people camps of northern Uganda through community health clubs’, paper presented at the 31st WEDC International Conference: ethe Benefits from Water and Environmental Sanitation, Kampala, Uganda [pdf] <https://wedc-knowledge.lboro.ac.uk/resources/conference/31/WaterkeynJ.pdf> [accessed 22 November 2017].
Watson, J.T., Gayer, M. and Connolly, M.A. (2007) ‘Epidemics after natural disasters’, Emerging Infectious Diseases 13: 1–5 <https://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1301.060779>.
WHO (2016a) ‘Cholera case fatality rate: situation and trends’ [online], WHO <www.who.int/gho/epidemic_diseases/cholera/case_fatality_rate_text/en/> [accessed 14 July 2016].
WHO (2016b) ‘Disease outbreaks’ [online], WHO <www.who.int/topics/disease_outbreaks/en/> [accessed 14 July 2016].
WHO (2016c) ‘Ebola situation reports’ [online], WHO <http://apps.who.int/ebola/ebola-situation-reports> [accessed 15 May 2016].
WHO (no date) ‘Guidance on communication with respect to safe drinking water and household hygiene: literature review, interviews and case studies’, Geneva: WHO.
Williams, H.A., Gaines, J., Patrick, M., Berendes, D., Fitter, D. and Handzel, T. (2015) ‘Perceptions of health communication, water treatment and sanitation in Artibonite department, Haiti, March-April 2012’, PLoS ONE 10: 1–17 <https://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0142778>.
Yates, T., Vujcic, J., Leandre Joseph, M. and Lantagne, D. (2015a) Impact of WASH Interventions during Disease Outbreaks in Humanitarian Emergencies: A Systematic Review Protocol, Oxford, UK: Oxfam GB.
Yates, T.M., Armitage, E., Lehmann, L.V., Branz, A.J. and Lantagne, D.S. (2015b) ‘Effectiveness of chlorine dispensers in emergencies: case study results from Haiti, Sierra Leone, Democratic Republic of Congo, and Senegal’, Environmental Science & Technology 49: 5115–22 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b00309>.
Yates, T., Allen, J., Leandre Joseph, M. and Lantagne, D. (2017) WASH Interventions in Disease Outbreak Response, Humanitarian Evidence Program, Oxford, UK: Oxfam GB.
Effectiveness of hygiene kit distribution to reduce cholera transmission in Kasaï-Oriental, Democratic Republic of Congo, 2018: a prospective cohort study
D'Mello-Guyett, Lauren
Cumming, Oliver
Bonneville, Sharla
D’hondt, Rob
Mashako, Maria
Nakoka, Brunette
Gorski, Alexandre
Verheyen, Dorien
Van den Bergh, Rafael
Welo, Placide Okitayemba
Maes, Peter
Checchi, Francesco
BMJ Open, Vol. 11 (2021), Iss. 10 P.e050943
https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-050943 [Citations: 10]Spatial-temporal analysis of climate and socioeconomic conditions on cholera incidence in Mozambique from 2000 to 2018: an ecological longitudinal retrospective study
Armando, Chaibo Jose
Rocklöv, Joacim
Sidat, Mohsin
Tozan, Yesim
Mavume, Alberto Francisco
Bunker, Aditi
Sewe, Maquins Odhiambo
BMJ Open, Vol. 14 (2024), Iss. 8 P.e082503
https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2023-082503 [Citations: 2]Efficacy of locally-available cleaning methods and household chlorination at inhibiting biofilm development in jerricans used to store household drinking water
String, Gabrielle M.
Domini, Marta
Badr, Hanaa
Brodsky, Hannah
Kamal, Yarmina
Tatro, Tyler
Johnston, Miranda
Ogudipe, Anthonia
Vu, Trang Nha
Wolfe, Marlene K.
Lantagne, Daniele S.
Environmental Science: Water Research & Technology, Vol. 7 (2021), Iss. 2 P.367
https://doi.org/10.1039/D0EW00748J [Citations: 4]Prevention and control of cholera with household and community water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) interventions: A scoping review of current international guidelines
D’Mello-Guyett, Lauren
Gallandat, Karin
Van den Bergh, Rafael
Taylor, Dawn
Bulit, Gregory
Legros, Dominique
Maes, Peter
Checchi, Francesco
Cumming, Oliver
Azman, Andrew S.
PLOS ONE, Vol. 15 (2020), Iss. 1 P.e0226549
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0226549 [Citations: 57]Highly targeted spatiotemporal interventions against cholera epidemics, 2000–19: a scoping review
Ratnayake, Ruwan
Finger, Flavio
Azman, Andrew S
Lantagne, Daniele
Funk, Sebastian
Edmunds, W John
Checchi, Francesco
The Lancet Infectious Diseases, Vol. 21 (2021), Iss. 3 P.e37
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30479-5 [Citations: 28]Public Health Interventions for Cholera Control and Prevention: Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene (WASH) Perspective.
IZAH, SYLVESTER CHIBUEZE
ETIM, NSIKAK GODWIN
ALAKA, OLUBUNMI OLAYEMI
NWACHUKWU, BORIS CHICHEBEM
JOSHUA, GODWIN
Greener Journal of Epidemiology and Public Health, Vol. 12 (2024), Iss. 1 P.1
https://doi.org/10.15580/gjeph.2024.1.102024145 [Citations: 0]Research priorities for water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) in humanitarian crises: A global prioritisation exercise
D'Mello-Guyett, Lauren
Heylen, Camille
Rohm, Elsa
Falconer, Jane
Lapegue, Jean
Dreibelbis, Robert
Ramos, Monica
Cumming, Oliver
Lantagne, Daniele
Reddythota, Daniel
PLOS Water, Vol. 3 (2024), Iss. 3 P.e0000217
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pwat.0000217 [Citations: 2]Building evidences in Public Health Emergency Preparedness (“BePHEP” Project)—a systematic review
Mercogliano, Michelangelo
Spatari, Gloria
Noviello, Chiara
Di Serafino, Francesca
Mormile, Maria Elisabetta
Granvillano, Giuseppa
Iagnemma, Annalisa
Mimmo, Riccardo
Schenone, Irene
Raso, Eleonora
Sanna, Andrea
Frasson, Enrica
Gallinoro, Veronica
Di Pumpo, Marcello
Shellah, Duha
Rizzo, Caterina
Zotti, Nunzio
International Journal for Equity in Health, Vol. 24 (2025), Iss. 1
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-025-02382-w [Citations: 0]Lessons learned from conducting six multi-country mixed-methods effectiveness research studies on water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) interventions in humanitarian response
Lantagne, Daniele
Lehmann, Lilian
Yates, Travis
Gallandat, Karin
Sikder, Mustafa
Domini, Marta
String, Gabrielle
BMC Public Health, Vol. 21 (2021), Iss. 1
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-10597-z [Citations: 7]A systematic review of chlorine-based surface disinfection efficacy to inform recommendations for low-resource outbreak settings
Gallandat, Karin
Kolus, Riley C.
Julian, Timothy R.
Lantagne, Daniele S.
American Journal of Infection Control, Vol. 49 (2021), Iss. 1 P.90
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajic.2020.05.014 [Citations: 44]Water, sanitation and hygiene risk factors for the transmission of cholera in a changing climate: using a systematic review to develop a causal process diagram
Jones, Natalia
Bouzid, Maha
Few, Roger
Hunter, Paul
Lake, Iain
Journal of Water and Health, Vol. 18 (2020), Iss. 2 P.145
https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2020.088 [Citations: 27]Preparing schools for future pandemics: Insights on water, sanitation and hygiene solutions from the Brazilian school reopening policies
Poague, Kasandra I.H.M.
Blanford, Justine I.
Martínez, Javier A.
Anthonj, Carmen
International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, Vol. 257 (2024), Iss. P.114325
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheh.2024.114325 [Citations: 1]Laboratory efficacy of surface disinfection using chlorine against Vibrio cholerae
String, Gabrielle M.
Gutiérrez, Eduardo Vargas
Lantagne, Daniele S.
Journal of Water and Health, Vol. 18 (2020), Iss. 6 P.1009
https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2020.199 [Citations: 11]Taking science to cholera in Bangladesh: the personal odyssey of Dr William B Greenough III and his colleagues
Greenough, William B
Shababi, Niloufar
Nourmohammadi Abadchi, Sanaz
eGastroenterology, Vol. 1 (2023), Iss. 1 P.e000002
https://doi.org/10.1136/egastro-2023-000002 [Citations: 0]Household Water Treatment and Cholera Control
Lantagne, Daniele
Yates, Travis
The Journal of Infectious Diseases, Vol. 218 (2018), Iss. suppl_3 P.S147
https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiy488 [Citations: 35]Efficacy of locally-available cleaning methods in removing biofilms from taps and surfaces of household water storage containers
String, Gabrielle
Domini, Marta
Mirindi, Patrick
Brodsky, Hayes Klemm
Kamal, Yarmina
Tatro, Tyler
Johnston, Miranda
Badr, Hanaa
Lantagne, Daniele
npj Clean Water, Vol. 3 (2020), Iss. 1
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41545-020-0061-y [Citations: 11]A Systematic Review of Surface Contamination, Stability, and Disinfection Data on SARS-CoV-2 (Through July 10, 2020)
Bedrosian, Noah
Mitchell, Elizabeth
Rohm, Elsa
Rothe, Miguel
Kelly, Christine
String, Gabrielle
Lantagne, Daniele
Environmental Science & Technology, Vol. 55 (2021), Iss. 7 P.4162
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.0c05651 [Citations: 57]A Quantitative and Qualitative Program Evaluation of a Case-Area Targeted Intervention to Reduce Cholera in Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo
Endres, Kelly
Mwishingo, Alain
Thomas, Elizabeth
Boroto, Raissa
Ntumba Nyarukanyi, Wivine
Bisimwa, Jean-Claude
Sanvura, Presence
Perin, Jamie
Bengehya, Justin
Maheshe, Ghislain
Cikomola, Cirhuza
George, Christine Marie
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, Vol. 21 (2023), Iss. 1 P.27
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph21010027 [Citations: 0]A socio-ecological perspective of the facilitators and barriers to uptake of water, sanitation and hygiene interventions in a slum setting in Kampala, Uganda: a qualitative study
Ssemugabo, Charles
Halage, Abdullah Ali
Namata, Carol
Musoke, David
Ssempebwa, John C.
Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, Vol. 10 (2020), Iss. 2 P.227
https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2020.124 [Citations: 14]Does community-wide water chlorination reduce hepatitis E virus infections during an outbreak? A geospatial analysis of data from an outbreak in Am Timan, Chad (2016–2017)
Lenglet, Annick
Ehlkes, Lutz
Taylor, Dawn
Fesselet, Jean-Francois
Nassariman, Jean Noel
Ahamat, Abdelkhadir
Chen, Alexandra
Noh, Idriss
Moustapha, Abakar
Spina, Alexander
Journal of Water and Health, Vol. 18 (2020), Iss. 4 P.556
https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2020.032 [Citations: 4]Chlorine efficacy against bacteriophage Phi6, a surrogate for enveloped human viruses, on porous and non-porous surfaces at varying temperatures and humidity
String, Gabrielle M.
Kamal, Yarmina
Gute, David M.
Lantagne, Daniele S.
Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A, Vol. 57 (2022), Iss. 8 P.685
https://doi.org/10.1080/10934529.2022.2101845 [Citations: 5]Distribution of hygiene kits during a cholera outbreak in Kasaï-Oriental, Democratic Republic of Congo: a process evaluation
D’Mello-Guyett, Lauren
Greenland, Katie
Bonneville, Sharla
D’hondt, Rob
Mashako, Maria
Gorski, Alexandre
Verheyen, Dorien
Van den Bergh, Rafael
Maes, Peter
Checchi, Francesco
Cumming, Oliver
Conflict and Health, Vol. 14 (2020), Iss. 1
https://doi.org/10.1186/s13031-020-00294-w [Citations: 20]Case-area targeted interventions and free chlorine residual in household drinking water: An observational cohort study during a cholera outbreak in Northeast Nigeria
Salem-Bango, Lindsay
OKeeffe, Jennifer
Desjardins, Michael R.
Lantagne, Daniele
Altare, Chiara
Kaur, Gurpreet
Rangaiya, Kanaganathan
Obroh, Patricia Oke-Oghene
Audu, Ahmadu
Solomon, Chimda Emmanuel
Heath, Thomas
Ihemezue, Emmanuel Emeka
Aye, Solomon
Lecuyot, Baptiste
Sikder, Mustafa
Doocy, Shannon
Xiao, Melody
Spiegel, Paul B.
Withey, Jeffrey H.
PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, Vol. 19 (2025), Iss. 1 P.e0012731
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0012731 [Citations: 0]Hygiene kit distribution and use in humanitarian response: summary of information from a systematic review and key informant interviews
Travis Yates, Travis Yates
Marta Domini, Marta Domini
Juliemarie Vander Burg, Juliemarie Vander Burg
Daniele Lantagne, Daniele Lantagne
Waterlines, Vol. 40 (2021), Iss. 4 P.248
https://doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.21-00008 [Citations: 0]Evidence summary of water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) coordination in humanitarian response
Yates, Travis
Zannat, Hur
Khandaker, Nabila
Porteaud, Dominique
Bouvet, Franck
Lantagne, Daniele
Disasters, Vol. 45 (2021), Iss. 4 P.913
https://doi.org/10.1111/disa.12463 [Citations: 11]Implementation considerations in case-area targeted interventions to prevent cholera transmission in Northeast Nigeria: A qualitative analysis
Kaur, Gurpreet
Salem-Bango, Lindsay
Nery, Ana Leticia Melquiades dos Santos
Solomon, Emmanuel Chimda
Ihemezue, Emmanuel
Kelly, Christine
Altare, Chiara
Azman, Andrew S.
Spiegel, Paul B.
Lantagne, Daniele
Kumar, Prashant
PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, Vol. 17 (2023), Iss. 4 P.e0011298
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0011298 [Citations: 5]Comment on “Adoption of Point-of-Use Chlorination for Household Drinking Water Treatment: A Systematic Review”
Lantagne, Daniele
Saltori, Roberto
Shaylor, Esther
String, Gabrielle
Wise, Tracy
Quick, Robert
Ramos, Monica
Environmental Health Perspectives, Vol. 131 (2023), Iss. 9
https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP13164 [Citations: 1]Developing context-specific water, sanitation and hygiene guidance for National Cholera Plans: Qualitative inputs
Ricau, Marine
Ali, Cawo
Yates, Travis
String, Gabrielle
Lantagne, Daniele
Thomas, Jacqueline
PLOS Water, Vol. 2 (2023), Iss. 6 P.e0000087
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pwat.0000087 [Citations: 0]A Review on the Water Dimensions, Security, and Governance for Two Distinct Regions
Abbas, Farhat
Al-Naemi, Salem
Farooque, Aitazaz A.
Phillips, Michael
Water, Vol. 15 (2023), Iss. 1 P.208
https://doi.org/10.3390/w15010208 [Citations: 17]Selection of a SARS-CoV-2 Surrogate for Use in Surface Disinfection Efficacy Studies with Chlorine and Antimicrobial Surfaces
String, Gabrielle M.
White, Mitchell R.
Gute, David M.
Mühlberger, Elke
Lantagne, Daniele S.
Environmental Science & Technology Letters, Vol. 8 (2021), Iss. 11 P.995
https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.1c00593 [Citations: 43]Gaps in humanitarian WASH response: perspectives from people affected by crises, practitioners, global responders, and the literature
Yates, Travis
Bastable, Andy
Allen, John
Hestbæk, Cecilie
Hasan, Bushra
Hutchings, Paul
Ramos, Monica
Ngasala, Tula
Lantagne, Daniele
Disasters, Vol. 47 (2023), Iss. 3 P.830
https://doi.org/10.1111/disa.12571 [Citations: 1]Responding to epidemics in large-scale humanitarian crises: a case study of the cholera response in Yemen, 2016–2018
Spiegel, Paul
Ratnayake, Ruwan
Hellman, Nora
Ververs, Mija
Ngwa, Moise
Wise, Paul H
Lantagne, Daniele
BMJ Global Health, Vol. 4 (2019), Iss. 4 P.e001709
https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2019-001709 [Citations: 53]Evaluation of monitoring tools for WASH response in a cholera outbreak in northeast Nigeria
Ricau, Marine
Lacan, Lise
Ihemezue, Emmanuel
Lantagne, Daniele
String, Gabrielle
Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, Vol. 11 (2021), Iss. 6 P.972
https://doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2021.056 [Citations: 3]Laboratory evaluation of the efficacy of bucket chlorination guidelines at inactivating Vibrio cholerae for waters of varying quality
String, Gabrielle M.
Huang, Annie
Lantagne, Daniele
Journal of Water and Health, Vol. 20 (2022), Iss. 7 P.1071
https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2022.043 [Citations: 2]Household spraying in cholera outbreaks: Insights from three exploratory, mixed-methods field effectiveness evaluations
Gallandat, Karin
Huang, Annie
Rayner, Justine
String, Gabrielle
Lantagne, Daniele S.
Withey, Jeffrey H.
PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases, Vol. 14 (2020), Iss. 8 P.e0008661
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0008661 [Citations: 11]- Providing municipal faecal sludge management services: lessons from Bangladesh
- A call to action: organizational, professional, and personal change for gender transformative WASH programming
- Menstrual hygiene management: education and empowerment for girls?
- Webwatch
- WASH challenges to girls’ menstrual hygiene management in Metro Manila, Masbate, and South Central Mindanao, Philippines
Browse our other journals
