Under the commitments of the UN Sustainable Development targets, there is increasing pressure on water utility providers in developing countries to improve their levels of service to consumers, especially for the rapidly growing numbers of people with lower incomes who reside in urban informal settlements. However, pressure on water resources in many regions is simultaneously increasing owing to factors such as pollution, agricultural needs, and climate change. It is therefore important to assess the impacts of improving water services on city-wide water resources. This study examines consumption data from the East African city of Nairobi, collected from households of a variety of residential neighbourhoods. The study suggests that average per capita water consumption is closely related to water source choice (i.e. tap in the dwelling, yard tap, or water vendor kiosks). Within categories of water source type, variables such as household wealth, cost of water, and education do not have significant effects on per capita consumption. It is noted that increased accessibility of water causes the upper bound of consumption to rise, but not the lower. It may therefore be theorized that having a tap in a dwelling is necessary but not sufficient to increase per capita consumption. Within the sample examined, there is no statistically significant difference in per capita consumption between water source types other than a tap in a dwelling, and it is therefore suggested that providing a yard tap to those currently without any form of water connection may have negligible impact on city-wide water consumption.

Briand, A., Nauges, C., Strand, J. and Travers, M. (2010) ‘The impact of tap connection on water use: the case of household water consumption in Dakar, Senegal’, Environment and Development Economics 15(1): 107 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1355770X09990076>.

Deaton, A. (1997) The Analysis of Household Surveys: A Microeconometric Approach to Development Policy [pdf], Washington, DC: World Bank <http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/593871468777303124/The-analysis-of-household-surveys-a-microeconometric-approach-to-development-policy> [accessed 28 October 2015].

Dias, D., Martinez, C., Barros, R. and Libânio, M. (2014) ‘Modeling the household water consumption and solid waste generation in urban areas of developing countries by means of socioeconomic variables’, Water Science & Technology: Water Supply 14(6): 1001 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2014.062>.

Grafton, R.Q., Ward, M.B., To, H. and Kompas, T. (2011) ‘Determinants of residential water consumption: evidence and analysis from a 10-country household survey’, Water Resources Research 47(8): W08537 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2010WR009685>.

IBNet (2015) ‘Utility Profile Nairobi City Water And Sewerage Co. Ltd’ [online] <http://database.ib-net.org/utility_profile?uid=28080> [accessed 28 October 2015].

JMP (Joint Monitoring Programme) (2015) Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water: 2015 Update and MDG Assessment [pdf], Geneva: WHO/UNICEF <www.unwater.org/fileadmin/user_upload/unwater_new/docs/Progress_on_Sanitation_and_Drinking_Water.pdf> [accessed 6 January 2016].

Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (2009) ‘Population and Housing Census 2009’ [online], Nairobi: KNBS <www.knbs.or.ke/index.php?option=com_phocadownload&view=category&id=109:population-and-housing-census-2009&Itemid=599> [accessed 28 October 2015].

Kenya National Bureau of Statistics and ICF Macro (2010) Kenya Demographic and Health Survey 2008-09 [pdf], Calverton, MD: KNBS/ICF Macro <https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/fr229/fr229.pdf> [accessed 28 October 2015].

Kingdom, B., Liemberger, R. and Marin, P. (2006) The Challenge of Reducing Non-Revenue Water (NRW) in Developing Countries – How the Private Sector Can Help: A Look at Performance-based Service Contracting [pdf], Washington, DC: World Bank <http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2006/12/7531078/challenge-reducing-non-revenue-water-nrw-developing-countries-private-sector-can-help-look-performance-based-service-contracting> [accessed 19 October 2015].

Kirby, J.M., Connor, J., Ahmad, M., Gao, L. and Mainuddin, M. (2014) ‘Climate change and environmental water reallocation in the Murray–Darling Basin: impacts on flows, diversions and economic returns to irrigation’, Journal of Hydrology 518(A): 120–9 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.01.024>.

Ledant, M., Calas, B. and Fernandez, R.F. (2011a) Socio-Economical and Infrastructural Mapping and Analysis of Nairobi [pdf], Nairobi: IFRA/GWOPA <http://access-to-water-in-nairobi.gwopa.org/download/methodology_report_Nairobi_final.pdf> [accessed 4 November 2015].

Ledant, M., Nilsson, D., Calas, B. and Fernandez, R.F. (2011b) Access to Water in Nairobi: Mapping the Inequities beyond the Statistics [pdf], Nairobi: IFRA/GWOPA <http://access-to-water-in-nairobi.gwopa.org/download/access_to_water_in_Nairobi_mapping_the_inequities_beyond_the_statistics.pdf> [accessed 4 November 2015].

Nauges, C. and Whittington, D. (2010) ‘Estimation of water demand in developing countries: an overview’, World Bank Research Observer 25(2): 264–94.

Purshouse, H., Roxburgh, N., Javorszky, M., Sleigh, A. and Evans, B. (2015) Modelling Formal and Informal Domestic Water consumption in Nairobi – Fieldwork Report [pdf], London: WSUP <www.wsup.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/2-Researchers-Final-Report-Modelling-Formal-and-Informal-Domestic-Water-Consumption-in-Nairobi.pdf> [accessed 11 February 2016].

Rutstein, S.O. and Johnson, K. (2004) The DHS Wealth Index [pdf], Calverton, MD: ORC Macro <http://dhsprogram.com/publications/publication-cr6-comparative-reports.cfm> [accessed 28 October 2015].

UN (2012) The Future We Want: Outcome Document of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development [pdf], New York: United Nations <https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/733FutureWeWant.pdf> [accessed 6 January 2016].

UN (2015) ‘Goal 6: Ensure access to water and sanitation for all’ [online], New York: United Nations <www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/water-and-sanitation> [accessed: 12 February 2016].

Briand, A., Nauges, C., Strand, J. and Travers, M. (2010) ‘The impact of tap connection on water use: the case of household water consumption in Dakar, Senegal’, Environment and Development Economics 15(1): 107 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1355770X09990076>.

Deaton, A. (1997) The Analysis of Household Surveys: A Microeconometric Approach to Development Policy [pdf], Washington, DC: World Bank <http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/593871468777303124/The-analysis-of-household-surveys-a-microeconometric-approach-to-development-policy> [accessed 28 October 2015].

Dias, D., Martinez, C., Barros, R. and Libânio, M. (2014) ‘Modeling the household water consumption and solid waste generation in urban areas of developing countries by means of socioeconomic variables’, Water Science & Technology: Water Supply 14(6): 1001 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2014.062>.

Grafton, R.Q., Ward, M.B., To, H. and Kompas, T. (2011) ‘Determinants of residential water consumption: evidence and analysis from a 10-country household survey’, Water Resources Research 47(8): W08537 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2010WR009685>.

IBNet (2015) ‘Utility Profile Nairobi City Water And Sewerage Co. Ltd’ [online] <http://database.ib-net.org/utility_profile?uid=28080> [accessed 28 October 2015].

JMP (Joint Monitoring Programme) (2015) Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water: 2015 Update and MDG Assessment [pdf], Geneva: WHO/UNICEF <www.unwater.org/fileadmin/user_upload/unwater_new/docs/Progress_on_Sanitation_and_Drinking_Water.pdf> [accessed 6 January 2016].

Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (2009) ‘Population and Housing Census 2009’ [online], Nairobi: KNBS <www.knbs.or.ke/index.php?option=com_phocadownload&view=category&id=109:population-and-housing-census-2009&Itemid=599> [accessed 28 October 2015].

Kenya National Bureau of Statistics and ICF Macro (2010) Kenya Demographic and Health Survey 2008-09 [pdf], Calverton, MD: KNBS/ICF Macro <https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/fr229/fr229.pdf> [accessed 28 October 2015].

Kingdom, B., Liemberger, R. and Marin, P. (2006) The Challenge of Reducing Non-Revenue Water (NRW) in Developing Countries – How the Private Sector Can Help: A Look at Performance-based Service Contracting [pdf], Washington, DC: World Bank <http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2006/12/7531078/challenge-reducing-non-revenue-water-nrw-developing-countries-private-sector-can-help-look-performance-based-service-contracting> [accessed 19 October 2015].

Kirby, J.M., Connor, J., Ahmad, M., Gao, L. and Mainuddin, M. (2014) ‘Climate change and environmental water reallocation in the Murray–Darling Basin: impacts on flows, diversions and economic returns to irrigation’, Journal of Hydrology 518(A): 120–9 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.01.024>.

Ledant, M., Calas, B. and Fernandez, R.F. (2011a) Socio-Economical and Infrastructural Mapping and Analysis of Nairobi [pdf], Nairobi: IFRA/GWOPA <http://access-to-water-in-nairobi.gwopa.org/download/methodology_report_Nairobi_final.pdf> [accessed 4 November 2015].

Ledant, M., Nilsson, D., Calas, B. and Fernandez, R.F. (2011b) Access to Water in Nairobi: Mapping the Inequities beyond the Statistics [pdf], Nairobi: IFRA/GWOPA <http://access-to-water-in-nairobi.gwopa.org/download/access_to_water_in_Nairobi_mapping_the_inequities_beyond_the_statistics.pdf> [accessed 4 November 2015].

Nauges, C. and Whittington, D. (2010) ‘Estimation of water demand in developing countries: an overview’, World Bank Research Observer 25(2): 264–94.

Purshouse, H., Roxburgh, N., Javorszky, M., Sleigh, A. and Evans, B. (2015) Modelling Formal and Informal Domestic Water consumption in Nairobi – Fieldwork Report [pdf], London: WSUP <www.wsup.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/2-Researchers-Final-Report-Modelling-Formal-and-Informal-Domestic-Water-Consumption-in-Nairobi.pdf> [accessed 11 February 2016].

Rutstein, S.O. and Johnson, K. (2004) The DHS Wealth Index [pdf], Calverton, MD: ORC Macro <http://dhsprogram.com/publications/publication-cr6-comparative-reports.cfm> [accessed 28 October 2015].

UN (2012) The Future We Want: Outcome Document of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development [pdf], New York: United Nations <https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/733FutureWeWant.pdf> [accessed 6 January 2016].

UN (2015) ‘Goal 6: Ensure access to water and sanitation for all’ [online], New York: United Nations <www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/water-and-sanitation> [accessed: 12 February 2016].

Briand, A., Nauges, C., Strand, J. and Travers, M. (2010) ‘The impact of tap connection on water use: the case of household water consumption in Dakar, Senegal’, Environment and Development Economics 15(1): 107 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1355770X09990076>.

Deaton, A. (1997) The Analysis of Household Surveys: A Microeconometric Approach to Development Policy [pdf], Washington, DC: World Bank <http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/593871468777303124/The-analysis-of-household-surveys-a-microeconometric-approach-to-development-policy> [accessed 28 October 2015].

Dias, D., Martinez, C., Barros, R. and Libânio, M. (2014) ‘Modeling the household water consumption and solid waste generation in urban areas of developing countries by means of socioeconomic variables’, Water Science & Technology: Water Supply 14(6): 1001 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2014.062>.

Grafton, R.Q., Ward, M.B., To, H. and Kompas, T. (2011) ‘Determinants of residential water consumption: evidence and analysis from a 10-country household survey’, Water Resources Research 47(8): W08537 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2010WR009685>.

IBNet (2015) ‘Utility Profile Nairobi City Water And Sewerage Co. Ltd’ [online] <http://database.ib-net.org/utility_profile?uid=28080> [accessed 28 October 2015].

JMP (Joint Monitoring Programme) (2015) Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water: 2015 Update and MDG Assessment [pdf], Geneva: WHO/UNICEF <www.unwater.org/fileadmin/user_upload/unwater_new/docs/Progress_on_Sanitation_and_Drinking_Water.pdf> [accessed 6 January 2016].

Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (2009) ‘Population and Housing Census 2009’ [online], Nairobi: KNBS <www.knbs.or.ke/index.php?option=com_phocadownload&view=category&id=109:population-and-housing-census-2009&Itemid=599> [accessed 28 October 2015].

Kenya National Bureau of Statistics and ICF Macro (2010) Kenya Demographic and Health Survey 2008-09 [pdf], Calverton, MD: KNBS/ICF Macro <https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/fr229/fr229.pdf> [accessed 28 October 2015].

Kingdom, B., Liemberger, R. and Marin, P. (2006) The Challenge of Reducing Non-Revenue Water (NRW) in Developing Countries – How the Private Sector Can Help: A Look at Performance-based Service Contracting [pdf], Washington, DC: World Bank <http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2006/12/7531078/challenge-reducing-non-revenue-water-nrw-developing-countries-private-sector-can-help-look-performance-based-service-contracting> [accessed 19 October 2015].

Kirby, J.M., Connor, J., Ahmad, M., Gao, L. and Mainuddin, M. (2014) ‘Climate change and environmental water reallocation in the Murray–Darling Basin: impacts on flows, diversions and economic returns to irrigation’, Journal of Hydrology 518(A): 120–9 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.01.024>.

Ledant, M., Calas, B. and Fernandez, R.F. (2011a) Socio-Economical and Infrastructural Mapping and Analysis of Nairobi [pdf], Nairobi: IFRA/GWOPA <http://access-to-water-in-nairobi.gwopa.org/download/methodology_report_Nairobi_final.pdf> [accessed 4 November 2015].

Ledant, M., Nilsson, D., Calas, B. and Fernandez, R.F. (2011b) Access to Water in Nairobi: Mapping the Inequities beyond the Statistics [pdf], Nairobi: IFRA/GWOPA <http://access-to-water-in-nairobi.gwopa.org/download/access_to_water_in_Nairobi_mapping_the_inequities_beyond_the_statistics.pdf> [accessed 4 November 2015].

Nauges, C. and Whittington, D. (2010) ‘Estimation of water demand in developing countries: an overview’, World Bank Research Observer 25(2): 264–94.

Purshouse, H., Roxburgh, N., Javorszky, M., Sleigh, A. and Evans, B. (2015) Modelling Formal and Informal Domestic Water consumption in Nairobi – Fieldwork Report [pdf], London: WSUP <www.wsup.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/2-Researchers-Final-Report-Modelling-Formal-and-Informal-Domestic-Water-Consumption-in-Nairobi.pdf> [accessed 11 February 2016].

Rutstein, S.O. and Johnson, K. (2004) The DHS Wealth Index [pdf], Calverton, MD: ORC Macro <http://dhsprogram.com/publications/publication-cr6-comparative-reports.cfm> [accessed 28 October 2015].

UN (2012) The Future We Want: Outcome Document of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development [pdf], New York: United Nations <https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/733FutureWeWant.pdf> [accessed 6 January 2016].

UN (2015) ‘Goal 6: Ensure access to water and sanitation for all’ [online], New York: United Nations <www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/water-and-sanitation> [accessed: 12 February 2016].

Briand, A., Nauges, C., Strand, J. and Travers, M. (2010) ‘The impact of tap connection on water use: the case of household water consumption in Dakar, Senegal’, Environment and Development Economics 15(1): 107 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S1355770X09990076>.

Deaton, A. (1997) The Analysis of Household Surveys: A Microeconometric Approach to Development Policy [pdf], Washington, DC: World Bank <http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/593871468777303124/The-analysis-of-household-surveys-a-microeconometric-approach-to-development-policy> [accessed 28 October 2015].

Dias, D., Martinez, C., Barros, R. and Libânio, M. (2014) ‘Modeling the household water consumption and solid waste generation in urban areas of developing countries by means of socioeconomic variables’, Water Science & Technology: Water Supply 14(6): 1001 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/ws.2014.062>.

Grafton, R.Q., Ward, M.B., To, H. and Kompas, T. (2011) ‘Determinants of residential water consumption: evidence and analysis from a 10-country household survey’, Water Resources Research 47(8): W08537 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2010WR009685>.

IBNet (2015) ‘Utility Profile Nairobi City Water And Sewerage Co. Ltd’ [online] <http://database.ib-net.org/utility_profile?uid=28080> [accessed 28 October 2015].

JMP (Joint Monitoring Programme) (2015) Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water: 2015 Update and MDG Assessment [pdf], Geneva: WHO/UNICEF <www.unwater.org/fileadmin/user_upload/unwater_new/docs/Progress_on_Sanitation_and_Drinking_Water.pdf> [accessed 6 January 2016].

Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (2009) ‘Population and Housing Census 2009’ [online], Nairobi: KNBS <www.knbs.or.ke/index.php?option=com_phocadownload&view=category&id=109:population-and-housing-census-2009&Itemid=599> [accessed 28 October 2015].

Kenya National Bureau of Statistics and ICF Macro (2010) Kenya Demographic and Health Survey 2008-09 [pdf], Calverton, MD: KNBS/ICF Macro <https://dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/fr229/fr229.pdf> [accessed 28 October 2015].

Kingdom, B., Liemberger, R. and Marin, P. (2006) The Challenge of Reducing Non-Revenue Water (NRW) in Developing Countries – How the Private Sector Can Help: A Look at Performance-based Service Contracting [pdf], Washington, DC: World Bank <http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2006/12/7531078/challenge-reducing-non-revenue-water-nrw-developing-countries-private-sector-can-help-look-performance-based-service-contracting> [accessed 19 October 2015].

Kirby, J.M., Connor, J., Ahmad, M., Gao, L. and Mainuddin, M. (2014) ‘Climate change and environmental water reallocation in the Murray–Darling Basin: impacts on flows, diversions and economic returns to irrigation’, Journal of Hydrology 518(A): 120–9 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2014.01.024>.

Ledant, M., Calas, B. and Fernandez, R.F. (2011a) Socio-Economical and Infrastructural Mapping and Analysis of Nairobi [pdf], Nairobi: IFRA/GWOPA <http://access-to-water-in-nairobi.gwopa.org/download/methodology_report_Nairobi_final.pdf> [accessed 4 November 2015].

Ledant, M., Nilsson, D., Calas, B. and Fernandez, R.F. (2011b) Access to Water in Nairobi: Mapping the Inequities beyond the Statistics [pdf], Nairobi: IFRA/GWOPA <http://access-to-water-in-nairobi.gwopa.org/download/access_to_water_in_Nairobi_mapping_the_inequities_beyond_the_statistics.pdf> [accessed 4 November 2015].

Nauges, C. and Whittington, D. (2010) ‘Estimation of water demand in developing countries: an overview’, World Bank Research Observer 25(2): 264–94.

Purshouse, H., Roxburgh, N., Javorszky, M., Sleigh, A. and Evans, B. (2015) Modelling Formal and Informal Domestic Water consumption in Nairobi – Fieldwork Report [pdf], London: WSUP <www.wsup.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/2-Researchers-Final-Report-Modelling-Formal-and-Informal-Domestic-Water-Consumption-in-Nairobi.pdf> [accessed 11 February 2016].

Rutstein, S.O. and Johnson, K. (2004) The DHS Wealth Index [pdf], Calverton, MD: ORC Macro <http://dhsprogram.com/publications/publication-cr6-comparative-reports.cfm> [accessed 28 October 2015].

UN (2012) The Future We Want: Outcome Document of the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development [pdf], New York: United Nations <https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/733FutureWeWant.pdf> [accessed 6 January 2016].

UN (2015) ‘Goal 6: Ensure access to water and sanitation for all’ [online], New York: United Nations <www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/water-and-sanitation> [accessed: 12 February 2016].