Does women’s participation in water committees affect management and water system performance in rural Vanuatu?
Greater participation of women in water management and decision-making is expected to improve outcomes for both women and the wider community. Global evidence indicates that women’s participation in Water User Committees (WUCs) has been limited; yet their involvement in management has correlated with more effective water systems. This analysis of water inventory data from Vanuatu considers how women’s participation in WUCs affects water management and system functionality. Women represent only 16 per cent of committee membership; however, their involvement in key WUC roles was associated with more effective water management, including regular meetings and revenue collection, and improved functioning of water systems. This evidence of women’s involvement is proving useful in advocacy efforts to improve the gender balance in WUCs, and targets for female membership are being considered for inclusion in water supply legislation.Acey, C. (2010) ‘Gender and community mobilisation for urban water infrastructure investment in southern Nigeria’, Gender & Development 18(1): 11–26 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13552071003599970>.
Aladuwaka, S. and Momsen, J. (2010) ‘Sustainable development, water resources management and women’s empowerment: the Wanaraniya Water Project in Sri Lanka’, Gender & Development 18(1): 43–58 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13552071003600026>.
Arku, F.S. (2010) ‘Time savings from easy access to clean water: implications for rural men’s and women’s well-being’, Progress in Development Studies 10(3): 233–46 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/146499340901000303>.
Asian Development Bank (2013) Tool Kit on Gender Equality Results and Indicators [pdf], Mandaluyong City, Philippines: Asian Development Bank <https://www.oecd.org/derec/adb/tool-kit-gender-equality-results-indicators.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Brocklehurst, C. and Bartram, J. (2010) ‘Swimming upstream: why sanitation, hygiene and water are so important to mothers and their daughters’, Bulletin of the World Health Organization 88(7): 482 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2471/BLT.10.080077>.
CARE (2012) Good Practices Framework: Gender Analysis. Australia: CARE.
Carrard, N., Crawford, J., Halcrow, G. and Willetts, J. (2013) ‘A framework for exploring gender equality outcomes from WASH programmes’, Waterlines 32(4): 315–33 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2013.033>.
Department of Geology, Mines & Water Resources (2008) Vanuatu National Water Strategy 2008–2018 [pdf], Port Vila: Government of Vanuatu <http://nab.vu/sites/default/files/nab/documents/03/04/2014%20-%2012%3A37/national_water_strategy_-_finalsmall.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Devasia, L. (1998) ‘Safe drinking water and its acquisition: rural women’s participation in water management in Maharashtra, India’, International Journal of Water Resources Development 14(4): 537–46 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07900629849169>.
Enabor, B. (1998) ‘Integrated water management by urban poor women: a Nigerian slum experience’, International Journal of Water Resources Development 14(4): 505–12 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07900629849132>.
Fagan, G.H., Linnane, S., McGuigan, K.G. and Rugumayo, A.I. (2015) Water Is Life: Progress to Secure Safe Water Provision in Rural Uganda [online], Rugby, UK: Practical Action Publishing <www.developmentbookshelf.com/doi/book/10.3362/9781780448893> [accessed 24 October 2016].
Fisher, J. (2006) For Her it’s the Big Issue: Putting Women at the Centre of Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene [pdf], Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Evidence Report. Geneva: Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council <https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/bitstream/2134/9970/20/wsscc_for_her_its_the_big_issue_evidence_report_2006_en.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Fisher, J. (2008) ‘Women in water supply, sanitation and hygiene programmes’, Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Municipal Engineer 161(4): 223–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/muen.2008.161.4.223>.
Foster, T. (2013) ‘Predictors of sustainability for community-managed handpumps in sub-Saharan Africa: evidence from Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Uganda’, Environmental Science & Technology 47(21): 12037–46 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es402086n>.
Institute for Sustainable Futures (2010) Working Effectively with Women and Men in Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Programs: Learnings from Research on Gender Outcomes from Rural Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Projects in Vanuatu and Fiji [pdf], Sydney, Australia: University of Technology <https://opus.lib.uts.edu.au/handle/10453/17300> [accessed 20 May 2017].
International Development Support Services (2012) East Timor Rural Water Supply & Sanitation Programm (2007–2012) (Bee, Saneamentu no ljene iha Komunidade [BESIK]) [pdf], Activity Completion Report, AusAID <https://dfat.gov.au/about-us/publications/Documents/besik-activity-completion-report.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Kilsby, D. (2012) ‘Now We Feel like Respected Adults’: Positive Change in Gender Roles and Relations in a Timor Leste WASH Program [pdf], Research Report, Timor-Leste: Women’s Development Agency & WaterAid <https://acfid.asn.au/sites/site.acfid/files/resource_document/Positive-change-in-gender-roles-and-relations.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Michael, B.P. (1998) ‘The role of women in water resources management: the Tanzania case’, International Journal of Water Resources Development 14(4): 499–504 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07900629849123>.
Ministry of Water & Environment (1999) The Republic of Uganda: A National Water Policy [pdf], Kampala <http://extwprlegs1.fao.org/docs/pdf/uga158331.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Ministry of Water & Environment (2015) Water and Environment Sector Performance Report 2015 [pdf], Kampala: The Republic of Uganda <www.mwe.go.ug/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_download&gid=826&Itemid=55> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Mjoli, N., Nenzhelele, R. and Njiro, E. (2009) Assessment of Gender Equity in Water User Associations [pdf], Gezina: Water Research Commission <www.wrc.org.za/Knowledge%20Hub%20Documents/Research%20Reports/KV-219-09.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Moser, C. (1993) Gender Planning and Development: Theory, Practice & Training, London & New York: Routledge.
National Statistics Office (2013) Vanuatu Demographic and Health Survey 2013 [pdf], Port Vila: Secretariat of the Pacific Community <https://sdd.spc.int/images/documents/Collections/21_Vanuatu/DHS/2013/Report/2013_VDHS_FINAL_17_Feb_2015.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Peacock, C. (2015) Gender Equity and Social Inclusion in the WASH Sector in Vanuatu: Assessment of Gender Mainstreaming by WASH Policy-Makers and Service Providers and Recommendations to Strengthen Programming by Sector Stakeholders, Port Vila: UNICEF Pacific.
Plan International (2014) Gender and WASH Monitoring Tool [pdf], Australia: Plan International <https://www.plan.org.au/~/media/plan/documents/resources/gwmt-march-2014.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Ray, I. (2007) ‘Women, water, and development’, Annual Review of Environment and Resources 32(1): 421–49 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.energy.32.041806.143704>.
Remigios, M.V. (2011) ‘Women – water – sanitation: the case of Rimuka high-density suburb in Kadoma, Zimbabwe’, Agenda 25(2): 113–21 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10130950.2011.576004>.
Schweitzer, R. (2013) Community and Household Management Strategies for Water Supply and Treatment in Rural and Peri-urban Areas in the Developing World [online], PhD dissertation, University of South Florida <http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/4765> [accessed 20 May 2017].
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2005) Women and Water [pdf], New York: United Nations <www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/public/Feb05.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Upadhyay, B. (2004) Gender Roles and Multiple Uses of Water in North Gujuarat [pdf], Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute <www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Working_Papers/working/WOR70.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Vanuatu Ministry of Health (2007) Monitoring the Situation of Children and Women: Vanuatu Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey [pdf], Port Vila: Government of the Republic of Vanuatu <www.unicef.org/pacificislands/MICS_Reportsmla.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
van Wijk-Sijbesma, C. (2001) The Best of Two Worlds? Methodology for Participatory Assessment of Community Water Services [pdf], The Hague, Netherlands: International Water and Sanitation Centre <www.ircwash.org/sites/default/files/irc-2001-the_best.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Water and Sanitation Program (2010) Mainstreaming Gender in Water and Sanitation, Working Paper, Washington, DC: World Bank.
Watts, S. (2004) ‘Women, water management, and health’, Emerging Infectious Diseases 10(11): 2,025–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1011.040237>.
Whalen, M. and Belo, C. (2013) GMF Study: What is the situation of GMFs in Timor-Leste? Dili: BESIK.
WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (2010) Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water 2010 Update [pdf], Geneva: WHO <https://www.unicef.org/eapro/JMP-2010Final.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Willetts, J., Halcrow, G. and Carrard, N. (2009) How Do We Better Address Gender in Pacific Water and Sanitation Initiatives? Vanuatu Case Study [pdf], Research Project, Port Vila: Live & Learn Environment Education <www.genderinpacificwash.info/system/resources/BAhbBlsHOgZmIjwyMDExLzAxLzExLzIxLzMyLzQ5Lzc3Ni9pc2ZfaXdkYV92YW51YXR1X2Nhc2Vfc3R1ZHkucGRm/isf_iwda_vanuatu-case-study.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
World Health Organization (2012) GLAAS 2012 Report: The Challenge of Extending and Sustaining Services [pdf], Geneva: WHO <www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/pdf/glaas_report_2012_eng.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Acey, C. (2010) ‘Gender and community mobilisation for urban water infrastructure investment in southern Nigeria’, Gender & Development 18(1): 11–26 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13552071003599970>.
Aladuwaka, S. and Momsen, J. (2010) ‘Sustainable development, water resources management and women’s empowerment: the Wanaraniya Water Project in Sri Lanka’, Gender & Development 18(1): 43–58 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13552071003600026>.
Arku, F.S. (2010) ‘Time savings from easy access to clean water: implications for rural men’s and women’s well-being’, Progress in Development Studies 10(3): 233–46 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/146499340901000303>.
Asian Development Bank (2013) Tool Kit on Gender Equality Results and Indicators [pdf], Mandaluyong City, Philippines: Asian Development Bank <https://www.oecd.org/derec/adb/tool-kit-gender-equality-results-indicators.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Brocklehurst, C. and Bartram, J. (2010) ‘Swimming upstream: why sanitation, hygiene and water are so important to mothers and their daughters’, Bulletin of the World Health Organization 88(7): 482 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2471/BLT.10.080077>.
CARE (2012) Good Practices Framework: Gender Analysis. Australia: CARE.
Carrard, N., Crawford, J., Halcrow, G. and Willetts, J. (2013) ‘A framework for exploring gender equality outcomes from WASH programmes’, Waterlines 32(4): 315–33 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2013.033>.
Department of Geology, Mines & Water Resources (2008) Vanuatu National Water Strategy 2008–2018 [pdf], Port Vila: Government of Vanuatu <http://nab.vu/sites/default/files/nab/documents/03/04/2014%20-%2012%3A37/national_water_strategy_-_finalsmall.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Devasia, L. (1998) ‘Safe drinking water and its acquisition: rural women’s participation in water management in Maharashtra, India’, International Journal of Water Resources Development 14(4): 537–46 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07900629849169>.
Enabor, B. (1998) ‘Integrated water management by urban poor women: a Nigerian slum experience’, International Journal of Water Resources Development 14(4): 505–12 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07900629849132>.
Fagan, G.H., Linnane, S., McGuigan, K.G. and Rugumayo, A.I. (2015) Water Is Life: Progress to Secure Safe Water Provision in Rural Uganda [online], Rugby, UK: Practical Action Publishing <www.developmentbookshelf.com/doi/book/10.3362/9781780448893> [accessed 24 October 2016].
Fisher, J. (2006) For Her it’s the Big Issue: Putting Women at the Centre of Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene [pdf], Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Evidence Report. Geneva: Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council <https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/bitstream/2134/9970/20/wsscc_for_her_its_the_big_issue_evidence_report_2006_en.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Fisher, J. (2008) ‘Women in water supply, sanitation and hygiene programmes’, Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Municipal Engineer 161(4): 223–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/muen.2008.161.4.223>.
Foster, T. (2013) ‘Predictors of sustainability for community-managed handpumps in sub-Saharan Africa: evidence from Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Uganda’, Environmental Science & Technology 47(21): 12037–46 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es402086n>.
Institute for Sustainable Futures (2010) Working Effectively with Women and Men in Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Programs: Learnings from Research on Gender Outcomes from Rural Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Projects in Vanuatu and Fiji [pdf], Sydney, Australia: University of Technology <https://opus.lib.uts.edu.au/handle/10453/17300> [accessed 20 May 2017].
International Development Support Services (2012) East Timor Rural Water Supply & Sanitation Programm (2007–2012) (Bee, Saneamentu no ljene iha Komunidade [BESIK]) [pdf], Activity Completion Report, AusAID <https://dfat.gov.au/about-us/publications/Documents/besik-activity-completion-report.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Kilsby, D. (2012) ‘Now We Feel like Respected Adults’: Positive Change in Gender Roles and Relations in a Timor Leste WASH Program [pdf], Research Report, Timor-Leste: Women’s Development Agency & WaterAid <https://acfid.asn.au/sites/site.acfid/files/resource_document/Positive-change-in-gender-roles-and-relations.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Michael, B.P. (1998) ‘The role of women in water resources management: the Tanzania case’, International Journal of Water Resources Development 14(4): 499–504 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07900629849123>.
Ministry of Water & Environment (1999) The Republic of Uganda: A National Water Policy [pdf], Kampala <http://extwprlegs1.fao.org/docs/pdf/uga158331.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Ministry of Water & Environment (2015) Water and Environment Sector Performance Report 2015 [pdf], Kampala: The Republic of Uganda <www.mwe.go.ug/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_download&gid=826&Itemid=55> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Mjoli, N., Nenzhelele, R. and Njiro, E. (2009) Assessment of Gender Equity in Water User Associations [pdf], Gezina: Water Research Commission <www.wrc.org.za/Knowledge%20Hub%20Documents/Research%20Reports/KV-219-09.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Moser, C. (1993) Gender Planning and Development: Theory, Practice & Training, London & New York: Routledge.
National Statistics Office (2013) Vanuatu Demographic and Health Survey 2013 [pdf], Port Vila: Secretariat of the Pacific Community <https://sdd.spc.int/images/documents/Collections/21_Vanuatu/DHS/2013/Report/2013_VDHS_FINAL_17_Feb_2015.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Peacock, C. (2015) Gender Equity and Social Inclusion in the WASH Sector in Vanuatu: Assessment of Gender Mainstreaming by WASH Policy-Makers and Service Providers and Recommendations to Strengthen Programming by Sector Stakeholders, Port Vila: UNICEF Pacific.
Plan International (2014) Gender and WASH Monitoring Tool [pdf], Australia: Plan International <https://www.plan.org.au/~/media/plan/documents/resources/gwmt-march-2014.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Ray, I. (2007) ‘Women, water, and development’, Annual Review of Environment and Resources 32(1): 421–49 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.energy.32.041806.143704>.
Remigios, M.V. (2011) ‘Women – water – sanitation: the case of Rimuka high-density suburb in Kadoma, Zimbabwe’, Agenda 25(2): 113–21 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10130950.2011.576004>.
Schweitzer, R. (2013) Community and Household Management Strategies for Water Supply and Treatment in Rural and Peri-urban Areas in the Developing World [online], PhD dissertation, University of South Florida <http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/4765> [accessed 20 May 2017].
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2005) Women and Water [pdf], New York: United Nations <www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/public/Feb05.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Upadhyay, B. (2004) Gender Roles and Multiple Uses of Water in North Gujuarat [pdf], Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute <www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Working_Papers/working/WOR70.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Vanuatu Ministry of Health (2007) Monitoring the Situation of Children and Women: Vanuatu Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey [pdf], Port Vila: Government of the Republic of Vanuatu <www.unicef.org/pacificislands/MICS_Reportsmla.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
van Wijk-Sijbesma, C. (2001) The Best of Two Worlds? Methodology for Participatory Assessment of Community Water Services [pdf], The Hague, Netherlands: International Water and Sanitation Centre <www.ircwash.org/sites/default/files/irc-2001-the_best.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Water and Sanitation Program (2010) Mainstreaming Gender in Water and Sanitation, Working Paper, Washington, DC: World Bank.
Watts, S. (2004) ‘Women, water management, and health’, Emerging Infectious Diseases 10(11): 2,025–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1011.040237>.
Whalen, M. and Belo, C. (2013) GMF Study: What is the situation of GMFs in Timor-Leste? Dili: BESIK.
WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (2010) Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water 2010 Update [pdf], Geneva: WHO <https://www.unicef.org/eapro/JMP-2010Final.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Willetts, J., Halcrow, G. and Carrard, N. (2009) How Do We Better Address Gender in Pacific Water and Sanitation Initiatives? Vanuatu Case Study [pdf], Research Project, Port Vila: Live & Learn Environment Education <www.genderinpacificwash.info/system/resources/BAhbBlsHOgZmIjwyMDExLzAxLzExLzIxLzMyLzQ5Lzc3Ni9pc2ZfaXdkYV92YW51YXR1X2Nhc2Vfc3R1ZHkucGRm/isf_iwda_vanuatu-case-study.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
World Health Organization (2012) GLAAS 2012 Report: The Challenge of Extending and Sustaining Services [pdf], Geneva: WHO <www.un.org/waterforlifedecade/pdf/glaas_report_2012_eng.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Acey, C. (2010) ‘Gender and community mobilisation for urban water infrastructure investment in southern Nigeria’, Gender & Development 18(1): 11–26 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13552071003599970>.
Aladuwaka, S. and Momsen, J. (2010) ‘Sustainable development, water resources management and women’s empowerment: the Wanaraniya Water Project in Sri Lanka’, Gender & Development 18(1): 43–58 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13552071003600026>.
Arku, F.S. (2010) ‘Time savings from easy access to clean water: implications for rural men’s and women’s well-being’, Progress in Development Studies 10(3): 233–46 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/146499340901000303>.
Asian Development Bank (2013) Tool Kit on Gender Equality Results and Indicators [pdf], Mandaluyong City, Philippines: Asian Development Bank <https://www.oecd.org/derec/adb/tool-kit-gender-equality-results-indicators.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Brocklehurst, C. and Bartram, J. (2010) ‘Swimming upstream: why sanitation, hygiene and water are so important to mothers and their daughters’, Bulletin of the World Health Organization 88(7): 482 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2471/BLT.10.080077>.
CARE (2012) Good Practices Framework: Gender Analysis. Australia: CARE.
Carrard, N., Crawford, J., Halcrow, G. and Willetts, J. (2013) ‘A framework for exploring gender equality outcomes from WASH programmes’, Waterlines 32(4): 315–33 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2013.033>.
Department of Geology, Mines & Water Resources (2008) Vanuatu National Water Strategy 2008–2018 [pdf], Port Vila: Government of Vanuatu <http://nab.vu/sites/default/files/nab/documents/03/04/2014%20-%2012%3A37/national_water_strategy_-_finalsmall.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Devasia, L. (1998) ‘Safe drinking water and its acquisition: rural women’s participation in water management in Maharashtra, India’, International Journal of Water Resources Development 14(4): 537–46 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07900629849169>.
Enabor, B. (1998) ‘Integrated water management by urban poor women: a Nigerian slum experience’, International Journal of Water Resources Development 14(4): 505–12 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07900629849132>.
Fagan, G.H., Linnane, S., McGuigan, K.G. and Rugumayo, A.I. (2015) Water Is Life: Progress to Secure Safe Water Provision in Rural Uganda [online], Rugby, UK: Practical Action Publishing <www.developmentbookshelf.com/doi/book/10.3362/9781780448893> [accessed 24 October 2016].
Fisher, J. (2006) For Her it’s the Big Issue: Putting Women at the Centre of Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene [pdf], Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Evidence Report. Geneva: Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council <https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace-jspui/bitstream/2134/9970/20/wsscc_for_her_its_the_big_issue_evidence_report_2006_en.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Fisher, J. (2008) ‘Women in water supply, sanitation and hygiene programmes’, Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Municipal Engineer 161(4): 223–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1680/muen.2008.161.4.223>.
Foster, T. (2013) ‘Predictors of sustainability for community-managed handpumps in sub-Saharan Africa: evidence from Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Uganda’, Environmental Science & Technology 47(21): 12037–46 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es402086n>.
Institute for Sustainable Futures (2010) Working Effectively with Women and Men in Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Programs: Learnings from Research on Gender Outcomes from Rural Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Projects in Vanuatu and Fiji [pdf], Sydney, Australia: University of Technology <https://opus.lib.uts.edu.au/handle/10453/17300> [accessed 20 May 2017].
International Development Support Services (2012) East Timor Rural Water Supply & Sanitation Programm (2007–2012) (Bee, Saneamentu no ljene iha Komunidade [BESIK]) [pdf], Activity Completion Report, AusAID <https://dfat.gov.au/about-us/publications/Documents/besik-activity-completion-report.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Kilsby, D. (2012) ‘Now We Feel like Respected Adults’: Positive Change in Gender Roles and Relations in a Timor Leste WASH Program [pdf], Research Report, Timor-Leste: Women’s Development Agency & WaterAid <https://acfid.asn.au/sites/site.acfid/files/resource_document/Positive-change-in-gender-roles-and-relations.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Michael, B.P. (1998) ‘The role of women in water resources management: the Tanzania case’, International Journal of Water Resources Development 14(4): 499–504 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07900629849123>.
Ministry of Water & Environment (1999) The Republic of Uganda: A National Water Policy [pdf], Kampala <http://extwprlegs1.fao.org/docs/pdf/uga158331.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Ministry of Water & Environment (2015) Water and Environment Sector Performance Report 2015 [pdf], Kampala: The Republic of Uganda <www.mwe.go.ug/index.php?option=com_docman&task=doc_download&gid=826&Itemid=55> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Mjoli, N., Nenzhelele, R. and Njiro, E. (2009) Assessment of Gender Equity in Water User Associations [pdf], Gezina: Water Research Commission <www.wrc.org.za/Knowledge%20Hub%20Documents/Research%20Reports/KV-219-09.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Moser, C. (1993) Gender Planning and Development: Theory, Practice & Training, London & New York: Routledge.
National Statistics Office (2013) Vanuatu Demographic and Health Survey 2013 [pdf], Port Vila: Secretariat of the Pacific Community <https://sdd.spc.int/images/documents/Collections/21_Vanuatu/DHS/2013/Report/2013_VDHS_FINAL_17_Feb_2015.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Peacock, C. (2015) Gender Equity and Social Inclusion in the WASH Sector in Vanuatu: Assessment of Gender Mainstreaming by WASH Policy-Makers and Service Providers and Recommendations to Strengthen Programming by Sector Stakeholders, Port Vila: UNICEF Pacific.
Plan International (2014) Gender and WASH Monitoring Tool [pdf], Australia: Plan International <https://www.plan.org.au/~/media/plan/documents/resources/gwmt-march-2014.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Ray, I. (2007) ‘Women, water, and development’, Annual Review of Environment and Resources 32(1): 421–49 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.energy.32.041806.143704>.
Remigios, M.V. (2011) ‘Women – water – sanitation: the case of Rimuka high-density suburb in Kadoma, Zimbabwe’, Agenda 25(2): 113–21 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10130950.2011.576004>.
Schweitzer, R. (2013) Community and Household Management Strategies for Water Supply and Treatment in Rural and Peri-urban Areas in the Developing World [online], PhD dissertation, University of South Florida <http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/4765> [accessed 20 May 2017].
United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (2005) Women and Water [pdf], New York: United Nations <www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/public/Feb05.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Upadhyay, B. (2004) Gender Roles and Multiple Uses of Water in North Gujuarat [pdf], Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute <www.iwmi.cgiar.org/Publications/Working_Papers/working/WOR70.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Vanuatu Ministry of Health (2007) Monitoring the Situation of Children and Women: Vanuatu Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey [pdf], Port Vila: Government of the Republic of Vanuatu <www.unicef.org/pacificislands/MICS_Reportsmla.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
van Wijk-Sijbesma, C. (2001) The Best of Two Worlds? Methodology for Participatory Assessment of Community Water Services [pdf], The Hague, Netherlands: International Water and Sanitation Centre <www.ircwash.org/sites/default/files/irc-2001-the_best.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
Water and Sanitation Program (2010) Mainstreaming Gender in Water and Sanitation, Working Paper, Washington, DC: World Bank.
Watts, S. (2004) ‘Women, water management, and health’, Emerging Infectious Diseases 10(11): 2,025–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1011.040237>.
Whalen, M. and Belo, C. (2013) GMF Study: What is the situation of GMFs in Timor-Leste? Dili: BESIK.
WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (2010) Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water 2010 Update [pdf], Geneva: WHO <https://www.unicef.org/eapro/JMP-2010Final.pdf> [accessed 20 May 2017].
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