Water point failure in sub-Saharan Africa: the value of a systems thinking approach
Thousands of water points have been installed across sub-Saharan Africa over the past four decades; however, a number have been found to be dry/low-yielding, unsafe for human consumption, and in some cases marked with appearance, taste, and odour problems. Subsequently, many users have been unable or unwilling to use these water points and have had to revert to the use of unimproved water sources. A number of factors could be causing each of these problems, either directly or indirectly. Furthermore, these factors may be interdependent and these relationships may be marked by non-linearities, feedbacks, and time delays. Deciphering which factors need to be prioritized becomes a confusing and complex task. To help understand the impact of different interventions, this paper proposes the adoption of systems-based analysis for looking at water point failure and introduces some of the more common qualitative and quantitative analytical tools that could be used to reveal how these complexities might be managed more effectively. While the use of these tools within the WASH sector has been limited to date, they hold potential for helping to identify the most suitable remedies for water point failure. Examples of where such tools have been used in relation to water point failure are reviewed, and the extent to which each approach could be applied is examined from a practitioner perspective, recognizing the limitations arising from the differing data needs and time-consuming nature of each type of analysis.Adank, M., Kumasi, T.C., Chimbar, T.L., Atengdem, J., Agbemor, B.D., Dickinson, N. and Abbey, E. (2014) ‘The state of handpump water services in Ghana: findings from three districts’, 37th WEDC International Conference, 2014, Hanoi [pdf] <wedc.lboro.ac.uk/resources/conference/37/Adank-1976.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Anscombe, J.R. (2011) Consultancy Services: Quality Assurance of UNICEF Drilling Programmes for Boreholes in Malawi [pdf], Ministry of Agriculture Irrigation and Water Development, Government of the Republic of Malawi <https://www.unicef.org/malawi/MLW_resources_qualityassureboreholes.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Banson, K.E., Nguyen, N.C., Bosch, N.G. and Nguyen, T.V. (2015) ‘A systems thinking approach to address the complexity of agribusiness for sustainable development in Africa: a case study in Ghana’, Systems Research and Behavioural Science 32: 672–88 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/sres.2270>.
Battle, C. (2016) Monitoring Results of Complex Systems Changes: Measuring and Assessing the Changes Fundamental to Sustained WASH Services [pdf], WaterAid <www.wateraid.org/~/media/Publications/Monitoring-results-of-complex-systems-change.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Bey, V., Magara, P. and Abisa, J. (2014) Assessment of the Performance of the Service Delivery Model for Point Sources in Uganda [pdf], IRC, Triple-S Final Research Report <www.ircwash.org/resources/assessment-performance-service-delivery-model-point-sources-uganda> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Bonsor, H.C., Oates, N., Chilton, P.J., Carter, R.C., Casey, V., MacDonald, A.M., Etti, B., Nekesa, J., Musinguzi, F., Okubal, P., Alupo, G., Calow, R., Wilson, P., Tumuntungire, M. and Bennie, M. (2015) ‘A hidden crisis: strengthening the evidence base on the current failures of rural groundwater supplies’, 38th WEDC International Conference, 2015 Loughborough University [pdf] <http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/510650/1/hiddencrisis_bonsor-etal_revised_bgsreview.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Bromley, J., Jackson, N.A., Clymer, O.J., Giacomello, A.M. and Jensen, F.V. (2005) ‘The use of Hugin® to develop Bayesian networks as an aid to integrated water resource planning’, Environmental Modelling and Software 20(2): 231–42 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2003.12.021>.
Cain, J.D. (2001) Planning Improvements in Natural Resources Management: Guidelines for using Bayesian Networks to Support the Planning and Management of Development Programmes in the Water Sector and Beyond [pdf], Wallingford: Centre for Ecology and Hydrology <https://www.norsys.com/downloads/BBN%20Guidelines%20-%20Cain.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Chan, T.U., Hart, B.T., Kennard, M.J., Pusey, B.J., Shenton, W., Douglas, M.M., Valentine, E. and Patel, S. (2012) ‘Bayesian network models for environmental flow decision making in the Daly River, Northern Territory, Australia’, River Research and Applications 28(3): 283–301 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/rra.1456>.
Cuaya, G., Muñoz-Meléndez, A., Carrera, L.N., Morales, E.F., Quiñones, I., Pérez, A.I. and Alessi, A. (2013) ‘A dynamic Bayesian network for estimating the risk of falls from real gait data’, Medical and Biological Engineering and Computing 51(1): 29–37 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11517-012-0960-2>.
Düspohl, M., Frank, S. and Döll, P. (2012) ‘A review of Bayesian networks as a participatory modeling approach in support of sustainable environmental management’, Journal of Sustainable Development 5(12): 1–18 <http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jsd.v5n12p1>.
Engel, S., Iskandarani, M. and del Pilar Useche, M. (2005) Improved Water Supply in the Ghanaian Volta Basin: Who Uses it and Who Participates in Community Decision-making? [pdf], International Food Policy Research Institute, EPT Discussion Paper 129: 1–61 <https://ideas.repec.org/p/fpr/eptddp/129.html> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Fisher, M.B., Shields, K.F., Chan, T.U., Christenson, E., Cronk, R.D., Leker, H., Samani, D., Apoya, P., Lutz, A. and Bartram, J. (2015) ‘Understanding handpump sustainability: determinants of rural water source functionality in the Greater Afram Plains region of Ghana’, Water Resources Research 51: 1–19 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2014WR016770>.
Forbes, J., Huang, T., Kanazawa, K. and Russell, S. (1995) ‘The BATmobile: towards a Bayesian automated taxi’, 14th International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 1995, Montréal [online] <http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1643141> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Foster, T. (2013) ‘Predictors of sustainability for community-managed handpumps in sub-Saharan Africa: evidence from Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Uganda’, Environment, Science and Technology 47(21): 12037–46 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es402086n>.
Gilbert, N. (2007) Agent Based Models, London: Sage Publications.
Gleitsmann, B.A., Kroma, M.M. and Steenhuis, T. (2007) ‘Analysis of a rural water supply project in three communities in Mali: participation and sustainability’, Natural Resources Forum 31: 142–50 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-8947.2007.00144.x>.
Hamilton, D., Roques, F. and Nuttall, W.J. (2009) Agent Based Simulation of Technology Adoption [pdf], Electricity Policy Research Group, Working Paper Series, University of Cambridge <www.eprg.group.cam.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/binder1211.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Han, J. and Hayashi, Y. (2008) ‘A system dynamics model of CO2 mitigation in China’s inter-city passenger transport’, Transport Research D: Transport and Environment 13: 298–305 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2008.03.005>.
Harvey, P.A. (2004) ‘Borehole sustainability in rural Africa: an analysis of routine field data’, 30th WEDC International Conference, 2004, Vientiane, Lao PDR [pdf] <https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace/bitstream/2134/2109/1/Harvey04.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Haysom, A. (2006) A Study of the Factors Affecting Sustainability of Rural Water Supplies in Tanzania [pdf], WaterAid <www.wateraid.org/~/media/Publications/sustainability-rural-water-supplies-tanzania.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Henriksen, H.J., Rasmussen, P., Brandt, G., von Bülow, D. and Jensen, F.V. (2007) ‘Public participation modelling using Bayesian networks in management of groundwater contamination’, Environmental Modelling and Software 22: 1101–13 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2006.01.008>.
Hoko, Z. (2005) ‘An assessment of the water quality of drinking water in rural districts in Zimbabwe. The case of Gokwe South, Nkayi, Lupane, and Mwenezi districts’, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 30: 859–66 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2005.08.031>.
Hoko, Z. (2008) ‘An assessment of quality of water from boreholes in Bindura District, Zimbabwe’, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 33: 824–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2008.06.024>.
Hoko, Z. and Hertle, J. (2006) ‘An evaluation of the sustainability of a rural water rehabilitation project in Zimbabwe’, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 31(15-16): 699–706 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2006.08.038>.
Hoko, Z., Demberere, T. and Siwadi, K. (2009) ‘An evaluation of the sustainability of a water supply project in Mt Darwin district: Zimbabwe’, Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa 11(2): 98–112.
Holmes, J.K.C., Slinger, J.H., Musango, J.K., Brent, A.C. and Palmer, C.G. (2014) ‘Using system dynamics to explore the water supply and demand dilemmas of a small South African municipality’, 32nd International Conference of the System Dynamics Society, 2014, Delft [pdf] <www.systemdynamics.org/conferences/2014/proceed/papers/P1369.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Howe, P. (2010) ‘Archetypes of famine and response’, Disasters 34(1): 30–54 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7717.2009.01113.x>.
Hunter, P.R., MacDonald, A.M. and Carter, R.C. (2010) ‘Water supply and health’, PLoS Med 7(11): 1–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000361>.
Hutton, G., Haller, L. and Bartram, J. (2007) ‘Global cost-benefit analysis of water supply and sanitation interventions’, Journal of Water and Health 5(4): 481–502 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2007.009>.
Inam, A., Adamowski, J., Halbe, J. and Prasher, S. (2015) ‘Using causal loop diagrams for the initialization of stakeholder engagement in soil salinity management in agricultural watersheds in developing countries: a case study in the Rechna Doab watershed, Pakistan’, Journal of Environmental Management 152(C): 251–67 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2015.01.052>.
Katsi, L., Siwadi, J., Guzha, E., Makoni, F.S. and Smits, S. (2007) ‘Assessment of factors which affect multiple uses of water sources at household level in rural Zimbabwe: a case study of Marondera, Murehwa and Uzumba Maramba Pfungwe districts’, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 32: 1157–66 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2007.07.010>.
Komives, K., Akanbang, B., Thorsten, R., Tuffuor, B., Wakeman, W., Larbi, E., Bakalian, A. and Whittington, D. (2008) ‘Post-construction support and the sustainability of rural water projects in Ghana’, 33rd WEDC International Conference, 2008, Accra [pdf] <http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/resources/conference/33/Komvies_K.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Langford, M. (2005) ‘The United Nations concept of water as a human right: a new paradigm for old problems?’ Water Resources Development 21(2): 273–82 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07900620500035887>.
Lockwood, H. (2016) ‘Kampala WASH symposium background note’, Aguaconsult UK.
Lockwood, H., Bakalian, A. and Wakeman, W (2003) Assessing Sustainability in Rural Water Supply: The Role of Follow-up Support to Communities [pdf], Bank-Netherlands Water Partnership <www.aguaconsult.co.uk/assets/Uploads/Publications/WorldBank-AssessingSustainability-2003.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Maani, K. (2013) Decision-making for Climate Change Adaptation: A Systems Thinking Approach [pdf], National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility, Australia <https://www.nccarf.edu.au/sites/default/files/attached_files_publications/Maani_2013_Decision-making_for_climate_change_adaptation.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Maani, K.E. and Cavana, R.Y. (2007) Systems Thinking, System Dynamics: Managing Change and Complexity, 2nd edn, Auckland: Prentice Hall.
Macal, C.M. and North, M.J. (2010) ‘Tutorial on agent-based modelling and simulation’, Journal of Simulation 4: 151–62 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/jos.2010.3>.
MacArthur, J. (2015) Handpump Standardisation in Sub-Saharan Africa, RWSN Publication 2015-1, SKAT Foundation, RWSN: St Gallen <http://www.rural-water-supply.net/_ressources/documents/default/1-652-2-1421834932.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Matthews, R.B., Gilbert, N.G., Roach, A., Polhill, J.G. and Gotts, N.M. (2007) ‘Agent-based land-use models: a review of applications’, Landscape Ecology 22(10): 1447–59 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10980-007-9135-1>.
Nandalal, K.D.W. and Simonovic, S.P. (2003) ‘Resolving conflicts in water sharing: a systemic approach’, Water Resources Research 39(12): 1–10 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2003WR002172>.
Ngai, T. (2011) ‘How small non-governmental organizations can improve their program implementation strategies to increase the adoption and sustained use of household water treatment systems in the developing world’, Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Cambridge.
OHCHR (2003) General Comment No. 15: The Right to Water (Arts. 11 and 12 of the Covenant) [pdf], Geneva: OHCHR <http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/water/docs/CESCR_GC_15.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
OHCHR (2010) Fact Sheet No. 35, The Right to Water [pdf], Geneva: OHCHR <www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/FactSheet35en.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Pellon, M.B., Grover, D.K., Eppstein, M.J., Rizzo, D.M., Besaw, L.E. and Marshall, J.S. (2010) ‘An agent-based model for estimating consumer adoption of PHEV technology’, Transportation Research Board 89th Annual Meeting, 2010, Washington, DC <https://www.uvm.edu/~transctr/publications/TRB_2010/10-3303.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Pope, A.J. and Gimblett, R. (2015) ‘Linking Bayesian and agent-based models to simulate complex social-ecological systems in semi-arid regions’, Frontiers in Environmental Science 3(55): 1–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2015.00055>.
Sahin, O., Stewart, R.A. and Porter, M.G. (2014) ‘Water security through scarcity pricing and reverse osmosis: a system dynamics approach’, Journal of Cleaner Production 1–35 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.05.009>.
Sangodoyin, A.Y. (1991) ‘Water quality, influence and maintenance of rural boreholes in Nigeria’, International Journal of Environmental Studies 37(1–2): 97–107 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00207239108710620>.
Sara, J. and Katz, T. (1998) Making Rural Water Supply Sustainable: Report on the Impact of Project Rules [pdf], UNDP - World Bank Water and Sanitation Program, World Bank <www.wsp.org/UserFiles/file/global_ruralreport.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Shihab, K. (2008) ‘Dynamic modeling of groundwater pollutants with Bayesian networks’, Applied Artificial Intelligence 22(4): 352–76 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08839510701821645>.
Sterman, J. (2000) Business Dynamics: Systems Thinking and Modeling for a Complex World, Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Straub, D. (2009) ‘Stochastic modelling of deterioration processes through dynamic Bayesian networks’, Journal of Engineering Mechanics 135(10): 1089–99 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EM.1943-7889.0000024>.
Sun, Z. and Müller, D. (2013) ‘A framework for modeling payments for ecosystem services with agent-based models, Bayesian belief networks and opinion dynamics models’, Environmental Modelling and Software 45: 15–28 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2012.06.007>.
Sušnik, J., Vamvakeridou-Lyroudia, L.S., Savić, D.A. and Kapelan, Z. (2012) ‘Integrated system dynamics modelling for water scarcity assessment: case study of the Kairouan region’, Science of the Total Environment 440(C): 290–306 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.05.085>.
Ticehurst, J.L., Curtis, A. and Merritt, W.S. (2011) ‘Using Bayesian networks to complement conventional analyses to explore landholder management of native vegetation’, Environmental Modelling and Software 26(1): 52–65 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2010.03.032>.
Twomey, P. and Cadman, R. (2002) ‘Agent-based modelling of customer behaviour in the telecoms and media markets’, Info 4(1): 56–63 <http://www2.econ.iastate.edu/tesfatsi/ACERetailCustomerModeling.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
USAID (2014) Local Systems: A Framework for Supporting Sustained Development [pdf], USAID <https://www.usaid.gov/policy/local-systems-framework> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Walters, J.P. and Chinowsky, P.S. (2016) Planning rural water services in Nicaragua: a systems-based analysis of impact factors using graphical modeling, Environmental Science and Policy 57: 93–100 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2015.12.006>.
Walters, J.P. and Javernick-Will, A.N. (2015) ‘Long-term functionality of rural water services in developing countries: a system dynamics approach to understanding the dynamic interaction of factors’, Environment, Science and Technology 49(8): 5035–43 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es505975h>.
Whittington, D., Davies, J., Prokopy, L., Komives, K., Thorsten, R., Lukacs, H., Bakalian, A. and Wakeman, W. (2008) How Well is the Demand-driven, Community Management Model for Rural Water Supply Systems Doing? Evidence from Bolivia, Peru, and Ghana [pdf], University of Manchester: Brooks World Poverty Institute, BWPI Working Paper 22 <http://hummedia.manchester.ac.uk/institutes/gdi/publications/workingpapers/bwpi/bwpi-wp-2208.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
WHO and UNICEF (2015) Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water: 2015 Update and MDG Assessment [pdf], WHO and UNICEF <https://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP-Update-report-2015_English.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Wolstenholme, E.F. (1999) ‘Qualitative vs quantitative modelling: the evolving balance’ [pdf], The Journal of Operational Research Society 50(4): 422–428 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jors.2600700> [accessed 2 May 2017].
Wolstenholme, E.F. (2003) ‘Towards the definition and use of a core set of archetypal structures in system dynamics’, System Dynamics Review 19(1): 7–26 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/sdr.259>.
Adank, M., Kumasi, T.C., Chimbar, T.L., Atengdem, J., Agbemor, B.D., Dickinson, N. and Abbey, E. (2014) ‘The state of handpump water services in Ghana: findings from three districts’, 37th WEDC International Conference, 2014, Hanoi [pdf] <wedc.lboro.ac.uk/resources/conference/37/Adank-1976.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Anscombe, J.R. (2011) Consultancy Services: Quality Assurance of UNICEF Drilling Programmes for Boreholes in Malawi [pdf], Ministry of Agriculture Irrigation and Water Development, Government of the Republic of Malawi <https://www.unicef.org/malawi/MLW_resources_qualityassureboreholes.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Banson, K.E., Nguyen, N.C., Bosch, N.G. and Nguyen, T.V. (2015) ‘A systems thinking approach to address the complexity of agribusiness for sustainable development in Africa: a case study in Ghana’, Systems Research and Behavioural Science 32: 672–88 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/sres.2270>.
Battle, C. (2016) Monitoring Results of Complex Systems Changes: Measuring and Assessing the Changes Fundamental to Sustained WASH Services [pdf], WaterAid <www.wateraid.org/~/media/Publications/Monitoring-results-of-complex-systems-change.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Bey, V., Magara, P. and Abisa, J. (2014) Assessment of the Performance of the Service Delivery Model for Point Sources in Uganda [pdf], IRC, Triple-S Final Research Report <www.ircwash.org/resources/assessment-performance-service-delivery-model-point-sources-uganda> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Bonsor, H.C., Oates, N., Chilton, P.J., Carter, R.C., Casey, V., MacDonald, A.M., Etti, B., Nekesa, J., Musinguzi, F., Okubal, P., Alupo, G., Calow, R., Wilson, P., Tumuntungire, M. and Bennie, M. (2015) ‘A hidden crisis: strengthening the evidence base on the current failures of rural groundwater supplies’, 38th WEDC International Conference, 2015 Loughborough University [pdf] <http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/510650/1/hiddencrisis_bonsor-etal_revised_bgsreview.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Bromley, J., Jackson, N.A., Clymer, O.J., Giacomello, A.M. and Jensen, F.V. (2005) ‘The use of Hugin® to develop Bayesian networks as an aid to integrated water resource planning’, Environmental Modelling and Software 20(2): 231–42 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2003.12.021>.
Cain, J.D. (2001) Planning Improvements in Natural Resources Management: Guidelines for using Bayesian Networks to Support the Planning and Management of Development Programmes in the Water Sector and Beyond [pdf], Wallingford: Centre for Ecology and Hydrology <https://www.norsys.com/downloads/BBN%20Guidelines%20-%20Cain.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Chan, T.U., Hart, B.T., Kennard, M.J., Pusey, B.J., Shenton, W., Douglas, M.M., Valentine, E. and Patel, S. (2012) ‘Bayesian network models for environmental flow decision making in the Daly River, Northern Territory, Australia’, River Research and Applications 28(3): 283–301 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/rra.1456>.
Cuaya, G., Muñoz-Meléndez, A., Carrera, L.N., Morales, E.F., Quiñones, I., Pérez, A.I. and Alessi, A. (2013) ‘A dynamic Bayesian network for estimating the risk of falls from real gait data’, Medical and Biological Engineering and Computing 51(1): 29–37 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11517-012-0960-2>.
Düspohl, M., Frank, S. and Döll, P. (2012) ‘A review of Bayesian networks as a participatory modeling approach in support of sustainable environmental management’, Journal of Sustainable Development 5(12): 1–18 <http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jsd.v5n12p1>.
Engel, S., Iskandarani, M. and del Pilar Useche, M. (2005) Improved Water Supply in the Ghanaian Volta Basin: Who Uses it and Who Participates in Community Decision-making? [pdf], International Food Policy Research Institute, EPT Discussion Paper 129: 1–61 <https://ideas.repec.org/p/fpr/eptddp/129.html> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Fisher, M.B., Shields, K.F., Chan, T.U., Christenson, E., Cronk, R.D., Leker, H., Samani, D., Apoya, P., Lutz, A. and Bartram, J. (2015) ‘Understanding handpump sustainability: determinants of rural water source functionality in the Greater Afram Plains region of Ghana’, Water Resources Research 51: 1–19 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2014WR016770>.
Forbes, J., Huang, T., Kanazawa, K. and Russell, S. (1995) ‘The BATmobile: towards a Bayesian automated taxi’, 14th International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 1995, Montréal [online] <http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1643141> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Foster, T. (2013) ‘Predictors of sustainability for community-managed handpumps in sub-Saharan Africa: evidence from Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Uganda’, Environment, Science and Technology 47(21): 12037–46 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es402086n>.
Gilbert, N. (2007) Agent Based Models, London: Sage Publications.
Gleitsmann, B.A., Kroma, M.M. and Steenhuis, T. (2007) ‘Analysis of a rural water supply project in three communities in Mali: participation and sustainability’, Natural Resources Forum 31: 142–50 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-8947.2007.00144.x>.
Hamilton, D., Roques, F. and Nuttall, W.J. (2009) Agent Based Simulation of Technology Adoption [pdf], Electricity Policy Research Group, Working Paper Series, University of Cambridge <www.eprg.group.cam.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/binder1211.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Han, J. and Hayashi, Y. (2008) ‘A system dynamics model of CO2 mitigation in China’s inter-city passenger transport’, Transport Research D: Transport and Environment 13: 298–305 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2008.03.005>.
Harvey, P.A. (2004) ‘Borehole sustainability in rural Africa: an analysis of routine field data’, 30th WEDC International Conference, 2004, Vientiane, Lao PDR [pdf] <https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace/bitstream/2134/2109/1/Harvey04.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Haysom, A. (2006) A Study of the Factors Affecting Sustainability of Rural Water Supplies in Tanzania [pdf], WaterAid <www.wateraid.org/~/media/Publications/sustainability-rural-water-supplies-tanzania.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Henriksen, H.J., Rasmussen, P., Brandt, G., von Bülow, D. and Jensen, F.V. (2007) ‘Public participation modelling using Bayesian networks in management of groundwater contamination’, Environmental Modelling and Software 22: 1101–13 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2006.01.008>.
Hoko, Z. (2005) ‘An assessment of the water quality of drinking water in rural districts in Zimbabwe. The case of Gokwe South, Nkayi, Lupane, and Mwenezi districts’, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 30: 859–66 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2005.08.031>.
Hoko, Z. (2008) ‘An assessment of quality of water from boreholes in Bindura District, Zimbabwe’, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 33: 824–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2008.06.024>.
Hoko, Z. and Hertle, J. (2006) ‘An evaluation of the sustainability of a rural water rehabilitation project in Zimbabwe’, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 31(15-16): 699–706 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2006.08.038>.
Hoko, Z., Demberere, T. and Siwadi, K. (2009) ‘An evaluation of the sustainability of a water supply project in Mt Darwin district: Zimbabwe’, Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa 11(2): 98–112.
Holmes, J.K.C., Slinger, J.H., Musango, J.K., Brent, A.C. and Palmer, C.G. (2014) ‘Using system dynamics to explore the water supply and demand dilemmas of a small South African municipality’, 32nd International Conference of the System Dynamics Society, 2014, Delft [pdf] <www.systemdynamics.org/conferences/2014/proceed/papers/P1369.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Howe, P. (2010) ‘Archetypes of famine and response’, Disasters 34(1): 30–54 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7717.2009.01113.x>.
Hunter, P.R., MacDonald, A.M. and Carter, R.C. (2010) ‘Water supply and health’, PLoS Med 7(11): 1–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000361>.
Hutton, G., Haller, L. and Bartram, J. (2007) ‘Global cost-benefit analysis of water supply and sanitation interventions’, Journal of Water and Health 5(4): 481–502 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2007.009>.
Inam, A., Adamowski, J., Halbe, J. and Prasher, S. (2015) ‘Using causal loop diagrams for the initialization of stakeholder engagement in soil salinity management in agricultural watersheds in developing countries: a case study in the Rechna Doab watershed, Pakistan’, Journal of Environmental Management 152(C): 251–67 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2015.01.052>.
Katsi, L., Siwadi, J., Guzha, E., Makoni, F.S. and Smits, S. (2007) ‘Assessment of factors which affect multiple uses of water sources at household level in rural Zimbabwe: a case study of Marondera, Murehwa and Uzumba Maramba Pfungwe districts’, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 32: 1157–66 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2007.07.010>.
Komives, K., Akanbang, B., Thorsten, R., Tuffuor, B., Wakeman, W., Larbi, E., Bakalian, A. and Whittington, D. (2008) ‘Post-construction support and the sustainability of rural water projects in Ghana’, 33rd WEDC International Conference, 2008, Accra [pdf] <http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/resources/conference/33/Komvies_K.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Langford, M. (2005) ‘The United Nations concept of water as a human right: a new paradigm for old problems?’ Water Resources Development 21(2): 273–82 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07900620500035887>.
Lockwood, H. (2016) ‘Kampala WASH symposium background note’, Aguaconsult UK.
Lockwood, H., Bakalian, A. and Wakeman, W (2003) Assessing Sustainability in Rural Water Supply: The Role of Follow-up Support to Communities [pdf], Bank-Netherlands Water Partnership <www.aguaconsult.co.uk/assets/Uploads/Publications/WorldBank-AssessingSustainability-2003.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Maani, K. (2013) Decision-making for Climate Change Adaptation: A Systems Thinking Approach [pdf], National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility, Australia <https://www.nccarf.edu.au/sites/default/files/attached_files_publications/Maani_2013_Decision-making_for_climate_change_adaptation.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Maani, K.E. and Cavana, R.Y. (2007) Systems Thinking, System Dynamics: Managing Change and Complexity, 2nd edn, Auckland: Prentice Hall.
Macal, C.M. and North, M.J. (2010) ‘Tutorial on agent-based modelling and simulation’, Journal of Simulation 4: 151–62 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/jos.2010.3>.
MacArthur, J. (2015) Handpump Standardisation in Sub-Saharan Africa, RWSN Publication 2015-1, SKAT Foundation, RWSN: St Gallen <http://www.rural-water-supply.net/_ressources/documents/default/1-652-2-1421834932.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Matthews, R.B., Gilbert, N.G., Roach, A., Polhill, J.G. and Gotts, N.M. (2007) ‘Agent-based land-use models: a review of applications’, Landscape Ecology 22(10): 1447–59 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10980-007-9135-1>.
Nandalal, K.D.W. and Simonovic, S.P. (2003) ‘Resolving conflicts in water sharing: a systemic approach’, Water Resources Research 39(12): 1–10 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2003WR002172>.
Ngai, T. (2011) ‘How small non-governmental organizations can improve their program implementation strategies to increase the adoption and sustained use of household water treatment systems in the developing world’, Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Cambridge.
OHCHR (2003) General Comment No. 15: The Right to Water (Arts. 11 and 12 of the Covenant) [pdf], Geneva: OHCHR <http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/water/docs/CESCR_GC_15.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
OHCHR (2010) Fact Sheet No. 35, The Right to Water [pdf], Geneva: OHCHR <www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/FactSheet35en.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Pellon, M.B., Grover, D.K., Eppstein, M.J., Rizzo, D.M., Besaw, L.E. and Marshall, J.S. (2010) ‘An agent-based model for estimating consumer adoption of PHEV technology’, Transportation Research Board 89th Annual Meeting, 2010, Washington, DC <https://www.uvm.edu/~transctr/publications/TRB_2010/10-3303.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Pope, A.J. and Gimblett, R. (2015) ‘Linking Bayesian and agent-based models to simulate complex social-ecological systems in semi-arid regions’, Frontiers in Environmental Science 3(55): 1–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2015.00055>.
Sahin, O., Stewart, R.A. and Porter, M.G. (2014) ‘Water security through scarcity pricing and reverse osmosis: a system dynamics approach’, Journal of Cleaner Production 1–35 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.05.009>.
Sangodoyin, A.Y. (1991) ‘Water quality, influence and maintenance of rural boreholes in Nigeria’, International Journal of Environmental Studies 37(1–2): 97–107 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00207239108710620>.
Sara, J. and Katz, T. (1998) Making Rural Water Supply Sustainable: Report on the Impact of Project Rules [pdf], UNDP - World Bank Water and Sanitation Program, World Bank <www.wsp.org/UserFiles/file/global_ruralreport.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Shihab, K. (2008) ‘Dynamic modeling of groundwater pollutants with Bayesian networks’, Applied Artificial Intelligence 22(4): 352–76 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08839510701821645>.
Sterman, J. (2000) Business Dynamics: Systems Thinking and Modeling for a Complex World, Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Straub, D. (2009) ‘Stochastic modelling of deterioration processes through dynamic Bayesian networks’, Journal of Engineering Mechanics 135(10): 1089–99 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EM.1943-7889.0000024>.
Sun, Z. and Müller, D. (2013) ‘A framework for modeling payments for ecosystem services with agent-based models, Bayesian belief networks and opinion dynamics models’, Environmental Modelling and Software 45: 15–28 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2012.06.007>.
Sušnik, J., Vamvakeridou-Lyroudia, L.S., Savić, D.A. and Kapelan, Z. (2012) ‘Integrated system dynamics modelling for water scarcity assessment: case study of the Kairouan region’, Science of the Total Environment 440(C): 290–306 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.05.085>.
Ticehurst, J.L., Curtis, A. and Merritt, W.S. (2011) ‘Using Bayesian networks to complement conventional analyses to explore landholder management of native vegetation’, Environmental Modelling and Software 26(1): 52–65 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2010.03.032>.
Twomey, P. and Cadman, R. (2002) ‘Agent-based modelling of customer behaviour in the telecoms and media markets’, Info 4(1): 56–63 <http://www2.econ.iastate.edu/tesfatsi/ACERetailCustomerModeling.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
USAID (2014) Local Systems: A Framework for Supporting Sustained Development [pdf], USAID <https://www.usaid.gov/policy/local-systems-framework> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Walters, J.P. and Chinowsky, P.S. (2016) Planning rural water services in Nicaragua: a systems-based analysis of impact factors using graphical modeling, Environmental Science and Policy 57: 93–100 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2015.12.006>.
Walters, J.P. and Javernick-Will, A.N. (2015) ‘Long-term functionality of rural water services in developing countries: a system dynamics approach to understanding the dynamic interaction of factors’, Environment, Science and Technology 49(8): 5035–43 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es505975h>.
Whittington, D., Davies, J., Prokopy, L., Komives, K., Thorsten, R., Lukacs, H., Bakalian, A. and Wakeman, W. (2008) How Well is the Demand-driven, Community Management Model for Rural Water Supply Systems Doing? Evidence from Bolivia, Peru, and Ghana [pdf], University of Manchester: Brooks World Poverty Institute, BWPI Working Paper 22 <http://hummedia.manchester.ac.uk/institutes/gdi/publications/workingpapers/bwpi/bwpi-wp-2208.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
WHO and UNICEF (2015) Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water: 2015 Update and MDG Assessment [pdf], WHO and UNICEF <https://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP-Update-report-2015_English.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Wolstenholme, E.F. (1999) ‘Qualitative vs quantitative modelling: the evolving balance’ [pdf], The Journal of Operational Research Society 50(4): 422–428 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jors.2600700> [accessed 2 May 2017].
Wolstenholme, E.F. (2003) ‘Towards the definition and use of a core set of archetypal structures in system dynamics’, System Dynamics Review 19(1): 7–26 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/sdr.259>.
Adank, M., Kumasi, T.C., Chimbar, T.L., Atengdem, J., Agbemor, B.D., Dickinson, N. and Abbey, E. (2014) ‘The state of handpump water services in Ghana: findings from three districts’, 37th WEDC International Conference, 2014, Hanoi [pdf] <wedc.lboro.ac.uk/resources/conference/37/Adank-1976.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Anscombe, J.R. (2011) Consultancy Services: Quality Assurance of UNICEF Drilling Programmes for Boreholes in Malawi [pdf], Ministry of Agriculture Irrigation and Water Development, Government of the Republic of Malawi <https://www.unicef.org/malawi/MLW_resources_qualityassureboreholes.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Banson, K.E., Nguyen, N.C., Bosch, N.G. and Nguyen, T.V. (2015) ‘A systems thinking approach to address the complexity of agribusiness for sustainable development in Africa: a case study in Ghana’, Systems Research and Behavioural Science 32: 672–88 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/sres.2270>.
Battle, C. (2016) Monitoring Results of Complex Systems Changes: Measuring and Assessing the Changes Fundamental to Sustained WASH Services [pdf], WaterAid <www.wateraid.org/~/media/Publications/Monitoring-results-of-complex-systems-change.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Bey, V., Magara, P. and Abisa, J. (2014) Assessment of the Performance of the Service Delivery Model for Point Sources in Uganda [pdf], IRC, Triple-S Final Research Report <www.ircwash.org/resources/assessment-performance-service-delivery-model-point-sources-uganda> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Bonsor, H.C., Oates, N., Chilton, P.J., Carter, R.C., Casey, V., MacDonald, A.M., Etti, B., Nekesa, J., Musinguzi, F., Okubal, P., Alupo, G., Calow, R., Wilson, P., Tumuntungire, M. and Bennie, M. (2015) ‘A hidden crisis: strengthening the evidence base on the current failures of rural groundwater supplies’, 38th WEDC International Conference, 2015 Loughborough University [pdf] <http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/510650/1/hiddencrisis_bonsor-etal_revised_bgsreview.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Bromley, J., Jackson, N.A., Clymer, O.J., Giacomello, A.M. and Jensen, F.V. (2005) ‘The use of Hugin® to develop Bayesian networks as an aid to integrated water resource planning’, Environmental Modelling and Software 20(2): 231–42 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2003.12.021>.
Cain, J.D. (2001) Planning Improvements in Natural Resources Management: Guidelines for using Bayesian Networks to Support the Planning and Management of Development Programmes in the Water Sector and Beyond [pdf], Wallingford: Centre for Ecology and Hydrology <https://www.norsys.com/downloads/BBN%20Guidelines%20-%20Cain.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Chan, T.U., Hart, B.T., Kennard, M.J., Pusey, B.J., Shenton, W., Douglas, M.M., Valentine, E. and Patel, S. (2012) ‘Bayesian network models for environmental flow decision making in the Daly River, Northern Territory, Australia’, River Research and Applications 28(3): 283–301 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/rra.1456>.
Cuaya, G., Muñoz-Meléndez, A., Carrera, L.N., Morales, E.F., Quiñones, I., Pérez, A.I. and Alessi, A. (2013) ‘A dynamic Bayesian network for estimating the risk of falls from real gait data’, Medical and Biological Engineering and Computing 51(1): 29–37 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11517-012-0960-2>.
Düspohl, M., Frank, S. and Döll, P. (2012) ‘A review of Bayesian networks as a participatory modeling approach in support of sustainable environmental management’, Journal of Sustainable Development 5(12): 1–18 <http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jsd.v5n12p1>.
Engel, S., Iskandarani, M. and del Pilar Useche, M. (2005) Improved Water Supply in the Ghanaian Volta Basin: Who Uses it and Who Participates in Community Decision-making? [pdf], International Food Policy Research Institute, EPT Discussion Paper 129: 1–61 <https://ideas.repec.org/p/fpr/eptddp/129.html> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Fisher, M.B., Shields, K.F., Chan, T.U., Christenson, E., Cronk, R.D., Leker, H., Samani, D., Apoya, P., Lutz, A. and Bartram, J. (2015) ‘Understanding handpump sustainability: determinants of rural water source functionality in the Greater Afram Plains region of Ghana’, Water Resources Research 51: 1–19 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2014WR016770>.
Forbes, J., Huang, T., Kanazawa, K. and Russell, S. (1995) ‘The BATmobile: towards a Bayesian automated taxi’, 14th International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 1995, Montréal [online] <http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1643141> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Foster, T. (2013) ‘Predictors of sustainability for community-managed handpumps in sub-Saharan Africa: evidence from Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Uganda’, Environment, Science and Technology 47(21): 12037–46 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es402086n>.
Gilbert, N. (2007) Agent Based Models, London: Sage Publications.
Gleitsmann, B.A., Kroma, M.M. and Steenhuis, T. (2007) ‘Analysis of a rural water supply project in three communities in Mali: participation and sustainability’, Natural Resources Forum 31: 142–50 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-8947.2007.00144.x>.
Hamilton, D., Roques, F. and Nuttall, W.J. (2009) Agent Based Simulation of Technology Adoption [pdf], Electricity Policy Research Group, Working Paper Series, University of Cambridge <www.eprg.group.cam.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/binder1211.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Han, J. and Hayashi, Y. (2008) ‘A system dynamics model of CO2 mitigation in China’s inter-city passenger transport’, Transport Research D: Transport and Environment 13: 298–305 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2008.03.005>.
Harvey, P.A. (2004) ‘Borehole sustainability in rural Africa: an analysis of routine field data’, 30th WEDC International Conference, 2004, Vientiane, Lao PDR [pdf] <https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace/bitstream/2134/2109/1/Harvey04.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Haysom, A. (2006) A Study of the Factors Affecting Sustainability of Rural Water Supplies in Tanzania [pdf], WaterAid <www.wateraid.org/~/media/Publications/sustainability-rural-water-supplies-tanzania.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Henriksen, H.J., Rasmussen, P., Brandt, G., von Bülow, D. and Jensen, F.V. (2007) ‘Public participation modelling using Bayesian networks in management of groundwater contamination’, Environmental Modelling and Software 22: 1101–13 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2006.01.008>.
Hoko, Z. (2005) ‘An assessment of the water quality of drinking water in rural districts in Zimbabwe. The case of Gokwe South, Nkayi, Lupane, and Mwenezi districts’, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 30: 859–66 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2005.08.031>.
Hoko, Z. (2008) ‘An assessment of quality of water from boreholes in Bindura District, Zimbabwe’, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 33: 824–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2008.06.024>.
Hoko, Z. and Hertle, J. (2006) ‘An evaluation of the sustainability of a rural water rehabilitation project in Zimbabwe’, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 31(15-16): 699–706 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2006.08.038>.
Hoko, Z., Demberere, T. and Siwadi, K. (2009) ‘An evaluation of the sustainability of a water supply project in Mt Darwin district: Zimbabwe’, Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa 11(2): 98–112.
Holmes, J.K.C., Slinger, J.H., Musango, J.K., Brent, A.C. and Palmer, C.G. (2014) ‘Using system dynamics to explore the water supply and demand dilemmas of a small South African municipality’, 32nd International Conference of the System Dynamics Society, 2014, Delft [pdf] <www.systemdynamics.org/conferences/2014/proceed/papers/P1369.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Howe, P. (2010) ‘Archetypes of famine and response’, Disasters 34(1): 30–54 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7717.2009.01113.x>.
Hunter, P.R., MacDonald, A.M. and Carter, R.C. (2010) ‘Water supply and health’, PLoS Med 7(11): 1–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000361>.
Hutton, G., Haller, L. and Bartram, J. (2007) ‘Global cost-benefit analysis of water supply and sanitation interventions’, Journal of Water and Health 5(4): 481–502 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2007.009>.
Inam, A., Adamowski, J., Halbe, J. and Prasher, S. (2015) ‘Using causal loop diagrams for the initialization of stakeholder engagement in soil salinity management in agricultural watersheds in developing countries: a case study in the Rechna Doab watershed, Pakistan’, Journal of Environmental Management 152(C): 251–67 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2015.01.052>.
Katsi, L., Siwadi, J., Guzha, E., Makoni, F.S. and Smits, S. (2007) ‘Assessment of factors which affect multiple uses of water sources at household level in rural Zimbabwe: a case study of Marondera, Murehwa and Uzumba Maramba Pfungwe districts’, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 32: 1157–66 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2007.07.010>.
Komives, K., Akanbang, B., Thorsten, R., Tuffuor, B., Wakeman, W., Larbi, E., Bakalian, A. and Whittington, D. (2008) ‘Post-construction support and the sustainability of rural water projects in Ghana’, 33rd WEDC International Conference, 2008, Accra [pdf] <http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/resources/conference/33/Komvies_K.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Langford, M. (2005) ‘The United Nations concept of water as a human right: a new paradigm for old problems?’ Water Resources Development 21(2): 273–82 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07900620500035887>.
Lockwood, H. (2016) ‘Kampala WASH symposium background note’, Aguaconsult UK.
Lockwood, H., Bakalian, A. and Wakeman, W (2003) Assessing Sustainability in Rural Water Supply: The Role of Follow-up Support to Communities [pdf], Bank-Netherlands Water Partnership <www.aguaconsult.co.uk/assets/Uploads/Publications/WorldBank-AssessingSustainability-2003.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Maani, K. (2013) Decision-making for Climate Change Adaptation: A Systems Thinking Approach [pdf], National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility, Australia <https://www.nccarf.edu.au/sites/default/files/attached_files_publications/Maani_2013_Decision-making_for_climate_change_adaptation.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Maani, K.E. and Cavana, R.Y. (2007) Systems Thinking, System Dynamics: Managing Change and Complexity, 2nd edn, Auckland: Prentice Hall.
Macal, C.M. and North, M.J. (2010) ‘Tutorial on agent-based modelling and simulation’, Journal of Simulation 4: 151–62 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/jos.2010.3>.
MacArthur, J. (2015) Handpump Standardisation in Sub-Saharan Africa, RWSN Publication 2015-1, SKAT Foundation, RWSN: St Gallen <http://www.rural-water-supply.net/_ressources/documents/default/1-652-2-1421834932.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Matthews, R.B., Gilbert, N.G., Roach, A., Polhill, J.G. and Gotts, N.M. (2007) ‘Agent-based land-use models: a review of applications’, Landscape Ecology 22(10): 1447–59 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10980-007-9135-1>.
Nandalal, K.D.W. and Simonovic, S.P. (2003) ‘Resolving conflicts in water sharing: a systemic approach’, Water Resources Research 39(12): 1–10 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2003WR002172>.
Ngai, T. (2011) ‘How small non-governmental organizations can improve their program implementation strategies to increase the adoption and sustained use of household water treatment systems in the developing world’, Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Cambridge.
OHCHR (2003) General Comment No. 15: The Right to Water (Arts. 11 and 12 of the Covenant) [pdf], Geneva: OHCHR <http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/water/docs/CESCR_GC_15.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
OHCHR (2010) Fact Sheet No. 35, The Right to Water [pdf], Geneva: OHCHR <www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/FactSheet35en.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Pellon, M.B., Grover, D.K., Eppstein, M.J., Rizzo, D.M., Besaw, L.E. and Marshall, J.S. (2010) ‘An agent-based model for estimating consumer adoption of PHEV technology’, Transportation Research Board 89th Annual Meeting, 2010, Washington, DC <https://www.uvm.edu/~transctr/publications/TRB_2010/10-3303.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Pope, A.J. and Gimblett, R. (2015) ‘Linking Bayesian and agent-based models to simulate complex social-ecological systems in semi-arid regions’, Frontiers in Environmental Science 3(55): 1–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2015.00055>.
Sahin, O., Stewart, R.A. and Porter, M.G. (2014) ‘Water security through scarcity pricing and reverse osmosis: a system dynamics approach’, Journal of Cleaner Production 1–35 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.05.009>.
Sangodoyin, A.Y. (1991) ‘Water quality, influence and maintenance of rural boreholes in Nigeria’, International Journal of Environmental Studies 37(1–2): 97–107 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00207239108710620>.
Sara, J. and Katz, T. (1998) Making Rural Water Supply Sustainable: Report on the Impact of Project Rules [pdf], UNDP - World Bank Water and Sanitation Program, World Bank <www.wsp.org/UserFiles/file/global_ruralreport.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Shihab, K. (2008) ‘Dynamic modeling of groundwater pollutants with Bayesian networks’, Applied Artificial Intelligence 22(4): 352–76 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08839510701821645>.
Sterman, J. (2000) Business Dynamics: Systems Thinking and Modeling for a Complex World, Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Straub, D. (2009) ‘Stochastic modelling of deterioration processes through dynamic Bayesian networks’, Journal of Engineering Mechanics 135(10): 1089–99 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EM.1943-7889.0000024>.
Sun, Z. and Müller, D. (2013) ‘A framework for modeling payments for ecosystem services with agent-based models, Bayesian belief networks and opinion dynamics models’, Environmental Modelling and Software 45: 15–28 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2012.06.007>.
Sušnik, J., Vamvakeridou-Lyroudia, L.S., Savić, D.A. and Kapelan, Z. (2012) ‘Integrated system dynamics modelling for water scarcity assessment: case study of the Kairouan region’, Science of the Total Environment 440(C): 290–306 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.05.085>.
Ticehurst, J.L., Curtis, A. and Merritt, W.S. (2011) ‘Using Bayesian networks to complement conventional analyses to explore landholder management of native vegetation’, Environmental Modelling and Software 26(1): 52–65 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2010.03.032>.
Twomey, P. and Cadman, R. (2002) ‘Agent-based modelling of customer behaviour in the telecoms and media markets’, Info 4(1): 56–63 <http://www2.econ.iastate.edu/tesfatsi/ACERetailCustomerModeling.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
USAID (2014) Local Systems: A Framework for Supporting Sustained Development [pdf], USAID <https://www.usaid.gov/policy/local-systems-framework> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Walters, J.P. and Chinowsky, P.S. (2016) Planning rural water services in Nicaragua: a systems-based analysis of impact factors using graphical modeling, Environmental Science and Policy 57: 93–100 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2015.12.006>.
Walters, J.P. and Javernick-Will, A.N. (2015) ‘Long-term functionality of rural water services in developing countries: a system dynamics approach to understanding the dynamic interaction of factors’, Environment, Science and Technology 49(8): 5035–43 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es505975h>.
Whittington, D., Davies, J., Prokopy, L., Komives, K., Thorsten, R., Lukacs, H., Bakalian, A. and Wakeman, W. (2008) How Well is the Demand-driven, Community Management Model for Rural Water Supply Systems Doing? Evidence from Bolivia, Peru, and Ghana [pdf], University of Manchester: Brooks World Poverty Institute, BWPI Working Paper 22 <http://hummedia.manchester.ac.uk/institutes/gdi/publications/workingpapers/bwpi/bwpi-wp-2208.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
WHO and UNICEF (2015) Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water: 2015 Update and MDG Assessment [pdf], WHO and UNICEF <https://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP-Update-report-2015_English.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Wolstenholme, E.F. (1999) ‘Qualitative vs quantitative modelling: the evolving balance’ [pdf], The Journal of Operational Research Society 50(4): 422–428 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jors.2600700> [accessed 2 May 2017].
Wolstenholme, E.F. (2003) ‘Towards the definition and use of a core set of archetypal structures in system dynamics’, System Dynamics Review 19(1): 7–26 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/sdr.259>.
Adank, M., Kumasi, T.C., Chimbar, T.L., Atengdem, J., Agbemor, B.D., Dickinson, N. and Abbey, E. (2014) ‘The state of handpump water services in Ghana: findings from three districts’, 37th WEDC International Conference, 2014, Hanoi [pdf] <wedc.lboro.ac.uk/resources/conference/37/Adank-1976.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Anscombe, J.R. (2011) Consultancy Services: Quality Assurance of UNICEF Drilling Programmes for Boreholes in Malawi [pdf], Ministry of Agriculture Irrigation and Water Development, Government of the Republic of Malawi <https://www.unicef.org/malawi/MLW_resources_qualityassureboreholes.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Banson, K.E., Nguyen, N.C., Bosch, N.G. and Nguyen, T.V. (2015) ‘A systems thinking approach to address the complexity of agribusiness for sustainable development in Africa: a case study in Ghana’, Systems Research and Behavioural Science 32: 672–88 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/sres.2270>.
Battle, C. (2016) Monitoring Results of Complex Systems Changes: Measuring and Assessing the Changes Fundamental to Sustained WASH Services [pdf], WaterAid <www.wateraid.org/~/media/Publications/Monitoring-results-of-complex-systems-change.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Bey, V., Magara, P. and Abisa, J. (2014) Assessment of the Performance of the Service Delivery Model for Point Sources in Uganda [pdf], IRC, Triple-S Final Research Report <www.ircwash.org/resources/assessment-performance-service-delivery-model-point-sources-uganda> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Bonsor, H.C., Oates, N., Chilton, P.J., Carter, R.C., Casey, V., MacDonald, A.M., Etti, B., Nekesa, J., Musinguzi, F., Okubal, P., Alupo, G., Calow, R., Wilson, P., Tumuntungire, M. and Bennie, M. (2015) ‘A hidden crisis: strengthening the evidence base on the current failures of rural groundwater supplies’, 38th WEDC International Conference, 2015 Loughborough University [pdf] <http://nora.nerc.ac.uk/510650/1/hiddencrisis_bonsor-etal_revised_bgsreview.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Bromley, J., Jackson, N.A., Clymer, O.J., Giacomello, A.M. and Jensen, F.V. (2005) ‘The use of Hugin® to develop Bayesian networks as an aid to integrated water resource planning’, Environmental Modelling and Software 20(2): 231–42 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2003.12.021>.
Cain, J.D. (2001) Planning Improvements in Natural Resources Management: Guidelines for using Bayesian Networks to Support the Planning and Management of Development Programmes in the Water Sector and Beyond [pdf], Wallingford: Centre for Ecology and Hydrology <https://www.norsys.com/downloads/BBN%20Guidelines%20-%20Cain.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Chan, T.U., Hart, B.T., Kennard, M.J., Pusey, B.J., Shenton, W., Douglas, M.M., Valentine, E. and Patel, S. (2012) ‘Bayesian network models for environmental flow decision making in the Daly River, Northern Territory, Australia’, River Research and Applications 28(3): 283–301 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/rra.1456>.
Cuaya, G., Muñoz-Meléndez, A., Carrera, L.N., Morales, E.F., Quiñones, I., Pérez, A.I. and Alessi, A. (2013) ‘A dynamic Bayesian network for estimating the risk of falls from real gait data’, Medical and Biological Engineering and Computing 51(1): 29–37 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11517-012-0960-2>.
Düspohl, M., Frank, S. and Döll, P. (2012) ‘A review of Bayesian networks as a participatory modeling approach in support of sustainable environmental management’, Journal of Sustainable Development 5(12): 1–18 <http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/jsd.v5n12p1>.
Engel, S., Iskandarani, M. and del Pilar Useche, M. (2005) Improved Water Supply in the Ghanaian Volta Basin: Who Uses it and Who Participates in Community Decision-making? [pdf], International Food Policy Research Institute, EPT Discussion Paper 129: 1–61 <https://ideas.repec.org/p/fpr/eptddp/129.html> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Fisher, M.B., Shields, K.F., Chan, T.U., Christenson, E., Cronk, R.D., Leker, H., Samani, D., Apoya, P., Lutz, A. and Bartram, J. (2015) ‘Understanding handpump sustainability: determinants of rural water source functionality in the Greater Afram Plains region of Ghana’, Water Resources Research 51: 1–19 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2014WR016770>.
Forbes, J., Huang, T., Kanazawa, K. and Russell, S. (1995) ‘The BATmobile: towards a Bayesian automated taxi’, 14th International Joint Conference on Artificial Intelligence, 1995, Montréal [online] <http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1643141> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Foster, T. (2013) ‘Predictors of sustainability for community-managed handpumps in sub-Saharan Africa: evidence from Liberia, Sierra Leone, and Uganda’, Environment, Science and Technology 47(21): 12037–46 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es402086n>.
Gilbert, N. (2007) Agent Based Models, London: Sage Publications.
Gleitsmann, B.A., Kroma, M.M. and Steenhuis, T. (2007) ‘Analysis of a rural water supply project in three communities in Mali: participation and sustainability’, Natural Resources Forum 31: 142–50 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-8947.2007.00144.x>.
Hamilton, D., Roques, F. and Nuttall, W.J. (2009) Agent Based Simulation of Technology Adoption [pdf], Electricity Policy Research Group, Working Paper Series, University of Cambridge <www.eprg.group.cam.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/binder1211.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Han, J. and Hayashi, Y. (2008) ‘A system dynamics model of CO2 mitigation in China’s inter-city passenger transport’, Transport Research D: Transport and Environment 13: 298–305 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2008.03.005>.
Harvey, P.A. (2004) ‘Borehole sustainability in rural Africa: an analysis of routine field data’, 30th WEDC International Conference, 2004, Vientiane, Lao PDR [pdf] <https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/dspace/bitstream/2134/2109/1/Harvey04.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Haysom, A. (2006) A Study of the Factors Affecting Sustainability of Rural Water Supplies in Tanzania [pdf], WaterAid <www.wateraid.org/~/media/Publications/sustainability-rural-water-supplies-tanzania.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Henriksen, H.J., Rasmussen, P., Brandt, G., von Bülow, D. and Jensen, F.V. (2007) ‘Public participation modelling using Bayesian networks in management of groundwater contamination’, Environmental Modelling and Software 22: 1101–13 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2006.01.008>.
Hoko, Z. (2005) ‘An assessment of the water quality of drinking water in rural districts in Zimbabwe. The case of Gokwe South, Nkayi, Lupane, and Mwenezi districts’, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 30: 859–66 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2005.08.031>.
Hoko, Z. (2008) ‘An assessment of quality of water from boreholes in Bindura District, Zimbabwe’, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 33: 824–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2008.06.024>.
Hoko, Z. and Hertle, J. (2006) ‘An evaluation of the sustainability of a rural water rehabilitation project in Zimbabwe’, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 31(15-16): 699–706 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2006.08.038>.
Hoko, Z., Demberere, T. and Siwadi, K. (2009) ‘An evaluation of the sustainability of a water supply project in Mt Darwin district: Zimbabwe’, Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa 11(2): 98–112.
Holmes, J.K.C., Slinger, J.H., Musango, J.K., Brent, A.C. and Palmer, C.G. (2014) ‘Using system dynamics to explore the water supply and demand dilemmas of a small South African municipality’, 32nd International Conference of the System Dynamics Society, 2014, Delft [pdf] <www.systemdynamics.org/conferences/2014/proceed/papers/P1369.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Howe, P. (2010) ‘Archetypes of famine and response’, Disasters 34(1): 30–54 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7717.2009.01113.x>.
Hunter, P.R., MacDonald, A.M. and Carter, R.C. (2010) ‘Water supply and health’, PLoS Med 7(11): 1–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1000361>.
Hutton, G., Haller, L. and Bartram, J. (2007) ‘Global cost-benefit analysis of water supply and sanitation interventions’, Journal of Water and Health 5(4): 481–502 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2007.009>.
Inam, A., Adamowski, J., Halbe, J. and Prasher, S. (2015) ‘Using causal loop diagrams for the initialization of stakeholder engagement in soil salinity management in agricultural watersheds in developing countries: a case study in the Rechna Doab watershed, Pakistan’, Journal of Environmental Management 152(C): 251–67 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2015.01.052>.
Katsi, L., Siwadi, J., Guzha, E., Makoni, F.S. and Smits, S. (2007) ‘Assessment of factors which affect multiple uses of water sources at household level in rural Zimbabwe: a case study of Marondera, Murehwa and Uzumba Maramba Pfungwe districts’, Physics and Chemistry of the Earth 32: 1157–66 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2007.07.010>.
Komives, K., Akanbang, B., Thorsten, R., Tuffuor, B., Wakeman, W., Larbi, E., Bakalian, A. and Whittington, D. (2008) ‘Post-construction support and the sustainability of rural water projects in Ghana’, 33rd WEDC International Conference, 2008, Accra [pdf] <http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/resources/conference/33/Komvies_K.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Langford, M. (2005) ‘The United Nations concept of water as a human right: a new paradigm for old problems?’ Water Resources Development 21(2): 273–82 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07900620500035887>.
Lockwood, H. (2016) ‘Kampala WASH symposium background note’, Aguaconsult UK.
Lockwood, H., Bakalian, A. and Wakeman, W (2003) Assessing Sustainability in Rural Water Supply: The Role of Follow-up Support to Communities [pdf], Bank-Netherlands Water Partnership <www.aguaconsult.co.uk/assets/Uploads/Publications/WorldBank-AssessingSustainability-2003.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Maani, K. (2013) Decision-making for Climate Change Adaptation: A Systems Thinking Approach [pdf], National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility, Australia <https://www.nccarf.edu.au/sites/default/files/attached_files_publications/Maani_2013_Decision-making_for_climate_change_adaptation.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Maani, K.E. and Cavana, R.Y. (2007) Systems Thinking, System Dynamics: Managing Change and Complexity, 2nd edn, Auckland: Prentice Hall.
Macal, C.M. and North, M.J. (2010) ‘Tutorial on agent-based modelling and simulation’, Journal of Simulation 4: 151–62 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/jos.2010.3>.
MacArthur, J. (2015) Handpump Standardisation in Sub-Saharan Africa, RWSN Publication 2015-1, SKAT Foundation, RWSN: St Gallen <http://www.rural-water-supply.net/_ressources/documents/default/1-652-2-1421834932.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Matthews, R.B., Gilbert, N.G., Roach, A., Polhill, J.G. and Gotts, N.M. (2007) ‘Agent-based land-use models: a review of applications’, Landscape Ecology 22(10): 1447–59 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10980-007-9135-1>.
Nandalal, K.D.W. and Simonovic, S.P. (2003) ‘Resolving conflicts in water sharing: a systemic approach’, Water Resources Research 39(12): 1–10 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2003WR002172>.
Ngai, T. (2011) ‘How small non-governmental organizations can improve their program implementation strategies to increase the adoption and sustained use of household water treatment systems in the developing world’, Unpublished doctoral thesis, University of Cambridge.
OHCHR (2003) General Comment No. 15: The Right to Water (Arts. 11 and 12 of the Covenant) [pdf], Geneva: OHCHR <http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/water/docs/CESCR_GC_15.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
OHCHR (2010) Fact Sheet No. 35, The Right to Water [pdf], Geneva: OHCHR <www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/FactSheet35en.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Pellon, M.B., Grover, D.K., Eppstein, M.J., Rizzo, D.M., Besaw, L.E. and Marshall, J.S. (2010) ‘An agent-based model for estimating consumer adoption of PHEV technology’, Transportation Research Board 89th Annual Meeting, 2010, Washington, DC <https://www.uvm.edu/~transctr/publications/TRB_2010/10-3303.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Pope, A.J. and Gimblett, R. (2015) ‘Linking Bayesian and agent-based models to simulate complex social-ecological systems in semi-arid regions’, Frontiers in Environmental Science 3(55): 1–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2015.00055>.
Sahin, O., Stewart, R.A. and Porter, M.G. (2014) ‘Water security through scarcity pricing and reverse osmosis: a system dynamics approach’, Journal of Cleaner Production 1–35 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.05.009>.
Sangodoyin, A.Y. (1991) ‘Water quality, influence and maintenance of rural boreholes in Nigeria’, International Journal of Environmental Studies 37(1–2): 97–107 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00207239108710620>.
Sara, J. and Katz, T. (1998) Making Rural Water Supply Sustainable: Report on the Impact of Project Rules [pdf], UNDP - World Bank Water and Sanitation Program, World Bank <www.wsp.org/UserFiles/file/global_ruralreport.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Shihab, K. (2008) ‘Dynamic modeling of groundwater pollutants with Bayesian networks’, Applied Artificial Intelligence 22(4): 352–76 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/08839510701821645>.
Sterman, J. (2000) Business Dynamics: Systems Thinking and Modeling for a Complex World, Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Straub, D. (2009) ‘Stochastic modelling of deterioration processes through dynamic Bayesian networks’, Journal of Engineering Mechanics 135(10): 1089–99 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EM.1943-7889.0000024>.
Sun, Z. and Müller, D. (2013) ‘A framework for modeling payments for ecosystem services with agent-based models, Bayesian belief networks and opinion dynamics models’, Environmental Modelling and Software 45: 15–28 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2012.06.007>.
Sušnik, J., Vamvakeridou-Lyroudia, L.S., Savić, D.A. and Kapelan, Z. (2012) ‘Integrated system dynamics modelling for water scarcity assessment: case study of the Kairouan region’, Science of the Total Environment 440(C): 290–306 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.05.085>.
Ticehurst, J.L., Curtis, A. and Merritt, W.S. (2011) ‘Using Bayesian networks to complement conventional analyses to explore landholder management of native vegetation’, Environmental Modelling and Software 26(1): 52–65 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsoft.2010.03.032>.
Twomey, P. and Cadman, R. (2002) ‘Agent-based modelling of customer behaviour in the telecoms and media markets’, Info 4(1): 56–63 <http://www2.econ.iastate.edu/tesfatsi/ACERetailCustomerModeling.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
USAID (2014) Local Systems: A Framework for Supporting Sustained Development [pdf], USAID <https://www.usaid.gov/policy/local-systems-framework> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Walters, J.P. and Chinowsky, P.S. (2016) Planning rural water services in Nicaragua: a systems-based analysis of impact factors using graphical modeling, Environmental Science and Policy 57: 93–100 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2015.12.006>.
Walters, J.P. and Javernick-Will, A.N. (2015) ‘Long-term functionality of rural water services in developing countries: a system dynamics approach to understanding the dynamic interaction of factors’, Environment, Science and Technology 49(8): 5035–43 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/es505975h>.
Whittington, D., Davies, J., Prokopy, L., Komives, K., Thorsten, R., Lukacs, H., Bakalian, A. and Wakeman, W. (2008) How Well is the Demand-driven, Community Management Model for Rural Water Supply Systems Doing? Evidence from Bolivia, Peru, and Ghana [pdf], University of Manchester: Brooks World Poverty Institute, BWPI Working Paper 22 <http://hummedia.manchester.ac.uk/institutes/gdi/publications/workingpapers/bwpi/bwpi-wp-2208.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
WHO and UNICEF (2015) Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water: 2015 Update and MDG Assessment [pdf], WHO and UNICEF <https://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP-Update-report-2015_English.pdf> [accessed 15 February 2017].
Wolstenholme, E.F. (1999) ‘Qualitative vs quantitative modelling: the evolving balance’ [pdf], The Journal of Operational Research Society 50(4): 422–428 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jors.2600700> [accessed 2 May 2017].
Wolstenholme, E.F. (2003) ‘Towards the definition and use of a core set of archetypal structures in system dynamics’, System Dynamics Review 19(1): 7–26 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/sdr.259>.
Convergence of Social Marketing and Engineering: A Lead Mitigation Study in Madagascar
Buerck, Adaline M
Khaliq, Mahmooda
Rakotondrazaka, Rinah
Rakotoarisoa, Lova
Paul Barrett, Luke John
Sommariva, Silvia
Mihelcic, James R
Social Marketing Quarterly, Vol. 29 (2023), Iss. 1 P.87
https://doi.org/10.1177/15245004231153951 [Citations: 5]Internet of Things innovation in rural water supply in sub-Saharan Africa: a critical assessment of emerging ICT
Will Ingram, Will Ingram
Fayyaz Ali Memon, Fayyaz Ali Memon
Waterlines, Vol. 38 (2019), Iss. 2 P.71
https://doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.18-00028 [Citations: 7]Water demand and usage trends among group water schemes: implication for water conservation in Ireland
Hammond Antwi, Sarpong
Getty, David
Rolston, Alec
Linnane, Suzanne
Dowd Smith, Róisín
Water International, Vol. 49 (2024), Iss. 7 P.908
https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2024.2391174 [Citations: 0]Understanding Rural Water Services as a Complex System: An Assessment of Key Factors as Potential Leverage Points for Improved Service Sustainability
Valcourt, Nicholas
Walters, Jeffrey
Javernick-Will, Amy
Linden, Karl
Hailegiorgis, Betelhem
Sustainability, Vol. 12 (2020), Iss. 3 P.1243
https://doi.org/10.3390/su12031243 [Citations: 21]A systems approach to improving access to water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) in schools in Odisha, India
Singh Chouhan, Narendra
Oledzka Nielsen, Monika
Singh, Pratibha
Manchikanti, Swathi
Pandey, Vivek
Walters, Jeffrey P.
Kadyan, Karishma
H2Open Journal, Vol. 5 (2022), Iss. 3 P.395
https://doi.org/10.2166/h2oj.2022.044 [Citations: 3]System Approaches to Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene: A Systematic Literature Review
Valcourt, Nicholas
Javernick-Will, Amy
Walters, Jeffrey
Linden, Karl
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, Vol. 17 (2020), Iss. 3 P.702
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17030702 [Citations: 35]Systems Thinking and WASH
CHAPTER 3 – Using causal loop diagrams to understand handpump failure in sub-Saharan Africa
Liddle, Elisabeth S.
Fenner, Richard A.
2019
https://doi.org/10.3362/9781780447483.003 [Citations: 0]Challenges and solutions to rural water service sustainability in East African countries: A ‘systems scaffolding’ perspective
Walters, Jeffrey
Valcourt, Nicholas
Linden, Karl
Javernick-Will, Amy
Lockwood, Harold
Environmental Science & Policy, Vol. 136 (2022), Iss. P.564
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2022.07.023 [Citations: 6]An investigation of private operator models for the management of rural water supply in sub-Saharan Africa
William van der Byl, William van der Byl
Richard C. Carter, Richard C. Carter
Waterlines, Vol. 37 (2018), Iss. 2 P.155
https://doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.18-00005 [Citations: 3]Rural Water Collection Patterns: Combining Smart Meter Data with User Experiences in Tanzania
Ingram, Will
Memon, Fayyaz Ali
Water, Vol. 12 (2020), Iss. 4 P.1164
https://doi.org/10.3390/w12041164 [Citations: 6]Identifying opportunities to improve piped water continuity and water system monitoring in Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama: Evidence from Bayesian networks and regression analysis
Cronk, Ryan
Bartram, Jamie
Journal of Cleaner Production, Vol. 196 (2018), Iss. P.1
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.06.017 [Citations: 14]Étude des modes d’approvisionnement en eau potable et des stratégies de réhabilitation des points d’eau modernes ruraux en zone tropicale humide : cas de la Commune de Mvangan au Cameroun
Mvongo, Victor Dang
Fonkou, Théophile
Defo, Célestin
(2022)
https://doi.org/10.4000/vertigo.36164 [Citations: 6]Ensemble machine learning and forecasting can achieve 99% uptime for rural handpumps
Wilson, Daniel L.
Coyle, Jeremy R.
Thomas, Evan A.
van Wouwe, Jacobus P.
PLOS ONE, Vol. 12 (2017), Iss. 11 P.e0188808
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0188808 [Citations: 30]Challenges and Solutions to Rural Water Service Sustainability in East African Countries: A ‘Systems Scaffolding’ Perspective
Walters, Jeffrey
Valcourt, Nicholas
Linden, Karl
Javernick-Will, Amy
Lockwood, Harold
(2022)
https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4093608 [Citations: 0]Socio-Demographic Factors Driving the Choice of Alternative Safe Water Sources and Their Implications for Public Health: Lessons from Goalmari, Bangladesh
Khan, Riaz Hossain
Fenner, Richard A.
Water, Vol. 16 (2024), Iss. 14 P.1978
https://doi.org/10.3390/w16141978 [Citations: 0]Reflecting SDG 6.1 in Rural Water Supply Tariffs: Considering ‘Affordability’ Versus ‘Operations and Maintenance Costs’ in Malawi
Truslove, Jonathan
Coulson, Andrea
Nhlema, Muthi
Mbalame, Emma
Kalin, Robert
Sustainability, Vol. 12 (2020), Iss. 2 P.744
https://doi.org/10.3390/su12020744 [Citations: 15]A categorization of water system breakdowns: Evidence from Liberia, Nigeria, Tanzania, and Uganda
Klug, Tori
Cronk, Ryan
Shields, Katherine F.
Bartram, Jamie
Science of The Total Environment, Vol. 619-620 (2018), Iss. P.1126
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.11.183 [Citations: 35]Sector Perspectives on the Attributes of System Approaches to Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene Service Delivery
Walters, Jeffrey P.
Valcourt, Nicholas
Javernick-Will, Amy
Linden, Karl
Journal of Environmental Engineering, Vol. 148 (2022), Iss. 6
https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0002010 [Citations: 8]Sustainable Infrastructure
Methods for sustainability practice
Fenner, Richard
Sykes, Judith
Ainger, Charles
2022
https://doi.org/10.1680/si.66717.259 [Citations: 0]A System Dynamics Model of the Community-Based Rural Drinking Water Supply Program (PAMSIMAS) in Indonesia
Daniel, D.
Prawira, Julivius
Al Djono, Trimo Pamudji
Subandriyo, S.
Rezagama, Arya
Purwanto, Aries
Water, Vol. 13 (2021), Iss. 4 P.507
https://doi.org/10.3390/w13040507 [Citations: 19]Water Challenges in Rural and Urban Sub-Saharan Africa and their Management
Water Challenges in Rural Sub-Saharan Africa
Nyika, Joan
Dinka, Megersa Olumana
2023
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-26271-5_3 [Citations: 2]Rural Water Point Functionality Estimates and Associations: Evidence From Nine Countries in Sub‐Saharan Africa and South Asia
Murray, Anna L.
Stone, Gabriela
Yang, Audrey R.
Lawrence, Nicholas F.
Matthews, Hannah
Kayser, Georgia L.
Water Resources Research, Vol. 60 (2024), Iss. 2
https://doi.org/10.1029/2023WR034679 [Citations: 2]- A call to action: organizational, professional, and personal change for gender transformative WASH programming
- Providing municipal faecal sludge management services: lessons from Bangladesh
- Menstrual hygiene management: education and empowerment for girls?
- Webwatch
- Transgender-inclusive sanitation: insights from South Asia
Browse our other journals
