An in-line PVC chlorinator can be an appropriate water disinfection technology to inactivate pathogens and improve water quality in community-managed water supply systems. Free chlorine residual was measured at five locations after the insertion of one chlorine tablet into an in-line PVC chlorinator and, in a second experiment, after the insertion of three chlorine tablets. The Ct (concentration × time) method for disinfection was used to compare the measured free chlorine residual with the residual required to inactivate a recommended percentage of common pathogens found in gravity-flow water systems in the developing world. The two operating conditions, each with a contact time of 56.6 minutes, had a free chlorine residual required to disinfect all viruses and bacteria considered in this study but not above the 0.27 mg/L needed to inactivate the protozoa Giardia lamblia, a common pathogen in developing countries that causes diarrhoea. The research suggests that an in-line PVC chlorinator can be a simple, effective technology that utilizes local materials to provide safe drinking water for rural communities; however, water committees need to iteratively test free chlorine residual in the system until sufficient residual is reached.

Aljubouri, Z. and Al-Kawaz, H. (2007) ‘Dissolution rate of gypsum under different environments’, Iraqi Journal of Earth Sciences 7: 11–8.

Cash-Fitzpatrick, D. (2008) Efficacy of Gravity-Fed Chlorination System for Community-Scale Water Disinfection in Northern Ghana, Master’s thesis, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

CDC (Centers for Disease Control) (2007) Safe Water System: Effect of Chlorination on Inactivating Selected Pathogens [pdf] <www.ehproject.org/PDF/ehkm/cdc-ct_factor_final.pdf> [accessed 11 April 2016].

CDC (2011) Chlorine Residual Testing [pdf], Fact Sheet: Safe Water Systems <www.cdc.gov/safewater/publications_pages/chlorineresidual.pdf> [accessed 11 April 2016].

CEECAM (Centro de Estudios Económicos) (2010) Cámara de Comercio, Industrias y Agricultura de Panamá. Desempeño Económico – 1 Trimestre del año 2010.

Craun, G.F. and Calderon, R.L. (2001) ‘Waterborne disease outbreaks caused by distribution system deficiencies’, Journal of the American Water Works Association 93: 64–75.

Crittenden, J.C., Trussell, R.R., Hand, D.W., Howe, K.J. and Tchobanoglous, G. (2012) Water Treatment: Principles and Design, 3rd edn, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley and Sons.

Fry, L.M., Schweitzer, R.W. and Mihelcic, J.R. (2013) ‘Water, human health, and sustainable development’, in S. Ahuja (ed.), Comprehensive Water Quality and Purification, Waltham, MA: Elsevier.

Henderson, A.K., Sack, R.B. and Toledo, E. (2005) ‘A comparison of two systems for chlorinating water in rural Honduras’, Population and Nutrition 23: 275–81.

Howard, G. and Bartram, J. (2003) Domestic Water Quantity, Service Level and Health, New York: World Health Organization.

Jordan, T.D. (1984) A Handbook of Gravity-flow Water Systems for Small Communities, Rugby, UK: Intermediate Technology Publications.

Kumpel, E. and Nelson, K.L. (2016) ‘Intermittent water supply: prevalence, practice, and microbial water quality’, Environmental Science and Technology 50: 542–53 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b03973>.

Luby, S.P., Halder, A.K., Huda, T.M., Unicomb, L., Islam, M.S., Arnold, B.F. and Johnston, R.B. (2015) ‘Microbiological contamination of drinking water associated with subsequent child diarrhea’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 93: 904–11 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.15-2074>.

Mihelcic, J.R., Phillips, L.D. and Watkins, D.W. (2006) ‘Integrating a global perspective into engineering education and research: engineering international sustainable development’, Environmental Engineering Science 23: 426–38 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/ees.2006.23.426>.

Mihelcic, J.R., Phillips, L.D., Fry, L.M. and Barkdoll, B.D. (2009) Field Guide to Environmental Engineering for Development Workers: Water, Sanitation, and Indoor Air, Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers.

Orner, K. (2011) Effectiveness of In-Line Chlorination of Gravity Flow Water Supply in Two Rural Communities in Panama [online], Master’s thesis, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida <http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/3271/> [accessed 28 March 2017].

Parker, A.H., Youlten, R., Dillon, M., Nussbaumer, T., Carter, R.C., Tyrrel, S.F. and Webster, J. (2010) ‘An assessment of microbiological water quality of six water source categories in north-east Uganda’, Journal of Water and Health 9: 550–60 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2010.128>.

Pickering, A.J., Crider, Y., Amin, N., Bauza, V., Unicomb, L., Davis, J. and Luby, S.P. (2015) ‘Differences in field effectiveness and adoption between a novel automated chlorination system and household manual chlorination of drinking water in Dhaka, Bangladesh: a randomized controlled trial’, PLoS ONE 10: e0118397 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0118397>.

Prüss-Ustün, A., Bartram, J., Clasen, T., Colford, J.M., Cumming, O., Curtis, V., Bonjour, S., Dangour, A.D., De France, J., Fewtrell, L., Freeman, M.C., Gordon, B., Hunter, P.R., Johnston, R.B., Mathers, C., Mäusezahl, D., Medlicott, K., Neira, M., Stocks, M., Wolf, J. and Cairncross, S. (2014) ‘Burden of disease from inadequate water, sanitation and hygiene in low- and middle-income settings: a retrospective analysis of data from 145 countries’, Tropical Medicine and International Health 19: 894–905 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/tmi.12329>.

Schweitzer, R.W. and Mihelcic, J.R. (2012) ‘Assessing sustainability of community management of rural water supply systems in the developing world’, Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 2: 20–30 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2012.056>.

Skinner, B. (2001) Chlorinating Small Water Supplies: A Review of Gravity-powered and Water-powered Chlorinators, WELL Studies in Water, Sanitation and Environmental Health, London: LSHTM; Loughborough, UK: WEDC.

Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater (2005) 21st edition, American Public Health Association/American Water Works Association/Water Environment Federation, Washington DC.

USEPA (2011) The Effectiveness of Disinfectant Residuals in the Distribution System, EPA 68-C-00-113, Washington, DC: EPA.

Vasconcelos, J.J, Rossman, L.A., Grayman, W.M., Boulos, P.F. and Clark, R.M. (1997) ‘Kinetics of chlorine decay’, Journal of the American Water Works Association 89: 54–65.

WHO (2004) Water Treatment and Pathogen Control [pdf], Geneva: WHO <www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/water-treatment-and-pathogen-control/en/> [accessed 3 April 2017].

WHO (2011a) Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, fourth edition [pdf], Geneva: WHO <http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2011/9789241548151_eng.pdf> [accessed 11 April 2016].

WHO (2011b) Evaluating Household Water Treatment Options: Health-based Targets and Microbiological Performance Specifications [pdf], Geneva: WHO <www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/2011/evaluating_water_treatment.pdf> [accessed 10 February 2017].

WHO (2012) Rapid Assessment of Drinking-water Quality: A Handbook for Implementation [pdf], Geneva: WHO <www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/RADWQHandbookv1final.pdf> [accessed 1 August 2016].

World Health Organization (WHO) and UNICEF (2015) Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation: 2015 Update and MDG Assessment [pdf] <www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP-Update-report-2015_English.pdf> [accessed 11 April 2016].

WHO and UNICEF (2016) ‘Improved and unimproved water sources and sanitation facilities’ [online] Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation <www.wssinfo.org/definitions-methods/watsan-categories/> [accessed 18 March 2016].

Yoakum, B. (2013) Improving Implementation of a Regional In-Line Chlorinator in Rural Panama through Development of a Regionally Appropriate Field Guide [online], Master’s thesis, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida <http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/4969/> [accessed 28 March 2017].

Zhang, J., Tejada-Martinez, A.E., Zhang, Q. and Lei, H. (2014) ‘Evaluating hydraulic and disinfection efficiencies of a full-scale ozone contactor using a RANS-based modeling framework’, Water Research 5: 155–67 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2013.12.037>.

Aljubouri, Z. and Al-Kawaz, H. (2007) ‘Dissolution rate of gypsum under different environments’, Iraqi Journal of Earth Sciences 7: 11–8.

Cash-Fitzpatrick, D. (2008) Efficacy of Gravity-Fed Chlorination System for Community-Scale Water Disinfection in Northern Ghana, Master’s thesis, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

CDC (Centers for Disease Control) (2007) Safe Water System: Effect of Chlorination on Inactivating Selected Pathogens [pdf] <www.ehproject.org/PDF/ehkm/cdc-ct_factor_final.pdf> [accessed 11 April 2016].

CDC (2011) Chlorine Residual Testing [pdf], Fact Sheet: Safe Water Systems <www.cdc.gov/safewater/publications_pages/chlorineresidual.pdf> [accessed 11 April 2016].

CEECAM (Centro de Estudios Económicos) (2010) Cámara de Comercio, Industrias y Agricultura de Panamá. Desempeño Económico – 1 Trimestre del año 2010.

Craun, G.F. and Calderon, R.L. (2001) ‘Waterborne disease outbreaks caused by distribution system deficiencies’, Journal of the American Water Works Association 93: 64–75.

Crittenden, J.C., Trussell, R.R., Hand, D.W., Howe, K.J. and Tchobanoglous, G. (2012) Water Treatment: Principles and Design, 3rd edn, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley and Sons.

Fry, L.M., Schweitzer, R.W. and Mihelcic, J.R. (2013) ‘Water, human health, and sustainable development’, in S. Ahuja (ed.), Comprehensive Water Quality and Purification, Waltham, MA: Elsevier.

Henderson, A.K., Sack, R.B. and Toledo, E. (2005) ‘A comparison of two systems for chlorinating water in rural Honduras’, Population and Nutrition 23: 275–81.

Howard, G. and Bartram, J. (2003) Domestic Water Quantity, Service Level and Health, New York: World Health Organization.

Jordan, T.D. (1984) A Handbook of Gravity-flow Water Systems for Small Communities, Rugby, UK: Intermediate Technology Publications.

Kumpel, E. and Nelson, K.L. (2016) ‘Intermittent water supply: prevalence, practice, and microbial water quality’, Environmental Science and Technology 50: 542–53 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b03973>.

Luby, S.P., Halder, A.K., Huda, T.M., Unicomb, L., Islam, M.S., Arnold, B.F. and Johnston, R.B. (2015) ‘Microbiological contamination of drinking water associated with subsequent child diarrhea’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 93: 904–11 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.15-2074>.

Mihelcic, J.R., Phillips, L.D. and Watkins, D.W. (2006) ‘Integrating a global perspective into engineering education and research: engineering international sustainable development’, Environmental Engineering Science 23: 426–38 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/ees.2006.23.426>.

Mihelcic, J.R., Phillips, L.D., Fry, L.M. and Barkdoll, B.D. (2009) Field Guide to Environmental Engineering for Development Workers: Water, Sanitation, and Indoor Air, Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers.

Orner, K. (2011) Effectiveness of In-Line Chlorination of Gravity Flow Water Supply in Two Rural Communities in Panama [online], Master’s thesis, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida <http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/3271/> [accessed 28 March 2017].

Parker, A.H., Youlten, R., Dillon, M., Nussbaumer, T., Carter, R.C., Tyrrel, S.F. and Webster, J. (2010) ‘An assessment of microbiological water quality of six water source categories in north-east Uganda’, Journal of Water and Health 9: 550–60 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2010.128>.

Pickering, A.J., Crider, Y., Amin, N., Bauza, V., Unicomb, L., Davis, J. and Luby, S.P. (2015) ‘Differences in field effectiveness and adoption between a novel automated chlorination system and household manual chlorination of drinking water in Dhaka, Bangladesh: a randomized controlled trial’, PLoS ONE 10: e0118397 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0118397>.

Prüss-Ustün, A., Bartram, J., Clasen, T., Colford, J.M., Cumming, O., Curtis, V., Bonjour, S., Dangour, A.D., De France, J., Fewtrell, L., Freeman, M.C., Gordon, B., Hunter, P.R., Johnston, R.B., Mathers, C., Mäusezahl, D., Medlicott, K., Neira, M., Stocks, M., Wolf, J. and Cairncross, S. (2014) ‘Burden of disease from inadequate water, sanitation and hygiene in low- and middle-income settings: a retrospective analysis of data from 145 countries’, Tropical Medicine and International Health 19: 894–905 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/tmi.12329>.

Schweitzer, R.W. and Mihelcic, J.R. (2012) ‘Assessing sustainability of community management of rural water supply systems in the developing world’, Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 2: 20–30 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2012.056>.

Skinner, B. (2001) Chlorinating Small Water Supplies: A Review of Gravity-powered and Water-powered Chlorinators, WELL Studies in Water, Sanitation and Environmental Health, London: LSHTM; Loughborough, UK: WEDC.

Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater (2005) 21st edition, American Public Health Association/American Water Works Association/Water Environment Federation, Washington DC.

USEPA (2011) The Effectiveness of Disinfectant Residuals in the Distribution System, EPA 68-C-00-113, Washington, DC: EPA.

Vasconcelos, J.J, Rossman, L.A., Grayman, W.M., Boulos, P.F. and Clark, R.M. (1997) ‘Kinetics of chlorine decay’, Journal of the American Water Works Association 89: 54–65.

WHO (2004) Water Treatment and Pathogen Control [pdf], Geneva: WHO <www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/water-treatment-and-pathogen-control/en/> [accessed 3 April 2017].

WHO (2011a) Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, fourth edition [pdf], Geneva: WHO <http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2011/9789241548151_eng.pdf> [accessed 11 April 2016].

WHO (2011b) Evaluating Household Water Treatment Options: Health-based Targets and Microbiological Performance Specifications [pdf], Geneva: WHO <www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/2011/evaluating_water_treatment.pdf> [accessed 10 February 2017].

WHO (2012) Rapid Assessment of Drinking-water Quality: A Handbook for Implementation [pdf], Geneva: WHO <www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/RADWQHandbookv1final.pdf> [accessed 1 August 2016].

World Health Organization (WHO) and UNICEF (2015) Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation: 2015 Update and MDG Assessment [pdf] <www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP-Update-report-2015_English.pdf> [accessed 11 April 2016].

WHO and UNICEF (2016) ‘Improved and unimproved water sources and sanitation facilities’ [online] Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation <www.wssinfo.org/definitions-methods/watsan-categories/> [accessed 18 March 2016].

Yoakum, B. (2013) Improving Implementation of a Regional In-Line Chlorinator in Rural Panama through Development of a Regionally Appropriate Field Guide [online], Master’s thesis, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida <http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/4969/> [accessed 28 March 2017].

Zhang, J., Tejada-Martinez, A.E., Zhang, Q. and Lei, H. (2014) ‘Evaluating hydraulic and disinfection efficiencies of a full-scale ozone contactor using a RANS-based modeling framework’, Water Research 5: 155–67 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2013.12.037>.

Aljubouri, Z. and Al-Kawaz, H. (2007) ‘Dissolution rate of gypsum under different environments’, Iraqi Journal of Earth Sciences 7: 11–8.

Cash-Fitzpatrick, D. (2008) Efficacy of Gravity-Fed Chlorination System for Community-Scale Water Disinfection in Northern Ghana, Master’s thesis, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

CDC (Centers for Disease Control) (2007) Safe Water System: Effect of Chlorination on Inactivating Selected Pathogens [pdf] <www.ehproject.org/PDF/ehkm/cdc-ct_factor_final.pdf> [accessed 11 April 2016].

CDC (2011) Chlorine Residual Testing [pdf], Fact Sheet: Safe Water Systems <www.cdc.gov/safewater/publications_pages/chlorineresidual.pdf> [accessed 11 April 2016].

CEECAM (Centro de Estudios Económicos) (2010) Cámara de Comercio, Industrias y Agricultura de Panamá. Desempeño Económico – 1 Trimestre del año 2010.

Craun, G.F. and Calderon, R.L. (2001) ‘Waterborne disease outbreaks caused by distribution system deficiencies’, Journal of the American Water Works Association 93: 64–75.

Crittenden, J.C., Trussell, R.R., Hand, D.W., Howe, K.J. and Tchobanoglous, G. (2012) Water Treatment: Principles and Design, 3rd edn, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley and Sons.

Fry, L.M., Schweitzer, R.W. and Mihelcic, J.R. (2013) ‘Water, human health, and sustainable development’, in S. Ahuja (ed.), Comprehensive Water Quality and Purification, Waltham, MA: Elsevier.

Henderson, A.K., Sack, R.B. and Toledo, E. (2005) ‘A comparison of two systems for chlorinating water in rural Honduras’, Population and Nutrition 23: 275–81.

Howard, G. and Bartram, J. (2003) Domestic Water Quantity, Service Level and Health, New York: World Health Organization.

Jordan, T.D. (1984) A Handbook of Gravity-flow Water Systems for Small Communities, Rugby, UK: Intermediate Technology Publications.

Kumpel, E. and Nelson, K.L. (2016) ‘Intermittent water supply: prevalence, practice, and microbial water quality’, Environmental Science and Technology 50: 542–53 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b03973>.

Luby, S.P., Halder, A.K., Huda, T.M., Unicomb, L., Islam, M.S., Arnold, B.F. and Johnston, R.B. (2015) ‘Microbiological contamination of drinking water associated with subsequent child diarrhea’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 93: 904–11 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.15-2074>.

Mihelcic, J.R., Phillips, L.D. and Watkins, D.W. (2006) ‘Integrating a global perspective into engineering education and research: engineering international sustainable development’, Environmental Engineering Science 23: 426–38 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/ees.2006.23.426>.

Mihelcic, J.R., Phillips, L.D., Fry, L.M. and Barkdoll, B.D. (2009) Field Guide to Environmental Engineering for Development Workers: Water, Sanitation, and Indoor Air, Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers.

Orner, K. (2011) Effectiveness of In-Line Chlorination of Gravity Flow Water Supply in Two Rural Communities in Panama [online], Master’s thesis, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida <http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/3271/> [accessed 28 March 2017].

Parker, A.H., Youlten, R., Dillon, M., Nussbaumer, T., Carter, R.C., Tyrrel, S.F. and Webster, J. (2010) ‘An assessment of microbiological water quality of six water source categories in north-east Uganda’, Journal of Water and Health 9: 550–60 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2010.128>.

Pickering, A.J., Crider, Y., Amin, N., Bauza, V., Unicomb, L., Davis, J. and Luby, S.P. (2015) ‘Differences in field effectiveness and adoption between a novel automated chlorination system and household manual chlorination of drinking water in Dhaka, Bangladesh: a randomized controlled trial’, PLoS ONE 10: e0118397 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0118397>.

Prüss-Ustün, A., Bartram, J., Clasen, T., Colford, J.M., Cumming, O., Curtis, V., Bonjour, S., Dangour, A.D., De France, J., Fewtrell, L., Freeman, M.C., Gordon, B., Hunter, P.R., Johnston, R.B., Mathers, C., Mäusezahl, D., Medlicott, K., Neira, M., Stocks, M., Wolf, J. and Cairncross, S. (2014) ‘Burden of disease from inadequate water, sanitation and hygiene in low- and middle-income settings: a retrospective analysis of data from 145 countries’, Tropical Medicine and International Health 19: 894–905 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/tmi.12329>.

Schweitzer, R.W. and Mihelcic, J.R. (2012) ‘Assessing sustainability of community management of rural water supply systems in the developing world’, Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 2: 20–30 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2012.056>.

Skinner, B. (2001) Chlorinating Small Water Supplies: A Review of Gravity-powered and Water-powered Chlorinators, WELL Studies in Water, Sanitation and Environmental Health, London: LSHTM; Loughborough, UK: WEDC.

Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater (2005) 21st edition, American Public Health Association/American Water Works Association/Water Environment Federation, Washington DC.

USEPA (2011) The Effectiveness of Disinfectant Residuals in the Distribution System, EPA 68-C-00-113, Washington, DC: EPA.

Vasconcelos, J.J, Rossman, L.A., Grayman, W.M., Boulos, P.F. and Clark, R.M. (1997) ‘Kinetics of chlorine decay’, Journal of the American Water Works Association 89: 54–65.

WHO (2004) Water Treatment and Pathogen Control [pdf], Geneva: WHO <www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/water-treatment-and-pathogen-control/en/> [accessed 3 April 2017].

WHO (2011a) Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality, fourth edition [pdf], Geneva: WHO <http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2011/9789241548151_eng.pdf> [accessed 11 April 2016].

WHO (2011b) Evaluating Household Water Treatment Options: Health-based Targets and Microbiological Performance Specifications [pdf], Geneva: WHO <www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/2011/evaluating_water_treatment.pdf> [accessed 10 February 2017].

WHO (2012) Rapid Assessment of Drinking-water Quality: A Handbook for Implementation [pdf], Geneva: WHO <www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/RADWQHandbookv1final.pdf> [accessed 1 August 2016].

World Health Organization (WHO) and UNICEF (2015) Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation: 2015 Update and MDG Assessment [pdf] <www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/JMP-Update-report-2015_English.pdf> [accessed 11 April 2016].

WHO and UNICEF (2016) ‘Improved and unimproved water sources and sanitation facilities’ [online] Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation <www.wssinfo.org/definitions-methods/watsan-categories/> [accessed 18 March 2016].

Yoakum, B. (2013) Improving Implementation of a Regional In-Line Chlorinator in Rural Panama through Development of a Regionally Appropriate Field Guide [online], Master’s thesis, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida <http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/4969/> [accessed 28 March 2017].

Zhang, J., Tejada-Martinez, A.E., Zhang, Q. and Lei, H. (2014) ‘Evaluating hydraulic and disinfection efficiencies of a full-scale ozone contactor using a RANS-based modeling framework’, Water Research 5: 155–67 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2013.12.037>.

Aljubouri, Z. and Al-Kawaz, H. (2007) ‘Dissolution rate of gypsum under different environments’, Iraqi Journal of Earth Sciences 7: 11–8.

Cash-Fitzpatrick, D. (2008) Efficacy of Gravity-Fed Chlorination System for Community-Scale Water Disinfection in Northern Ghana, Master’s thesis, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts.

CDC (Centers for Disease Control) (2007) Safe Water System: Effect of Chlorination on Inactivating Selected Pathogens [pdf] <www.ehproject.org/PDF/ehkm/cdc-ct_factor_final.pdf> [accessed 11 April 2016].

CDC (2011) Chlorine Residual Testing [pdf], Fact Sheet: Safe Water Systems <www.cdc.gov/safewater/publications_pages/chlorineresidual.pdf> [accessed 11 April 2016].

CEECAM (Centro de Estudios Económicos) (2010) Cámara de Comercio, Industrias y Agricultura de Panamá. Desempeño Económico – 1 Trimestre del año 2010.

Craun, G.F. and Calderon, R.L. (2001) ‘Waterborne disease outbreaks caused by distribution system deficiencies’, Journal of the American Water Works Association 93: 64–75.

Crittenden, J.C., Trussell, R.R., Hand, D.W., Howe, K.J. and Tchobanoglous, G. (2012) Water Treatment: Principles and Design, 3rd edn, Hoboken, NJ: Wiley and Sons.

Fry, L.M., Schweitzer, R.W. and Mihelcic, J.R. (2013) ‘Water, human health, and sustainable development’, in S. Ahuja (ed.), Comprehensive Water Quality and Purification, Waltham, MA: Elsevier.

Henderson, A.K., Sack, R.B. and Toledo, E. (2005) ‘A comparison of two systems for chlorinating water in rural Honduras’, Population and Nutrition 23: 275–81.

Howard, G. and Bartram, J. (2003) Domestic Water Quantity, Service Level and Health, New York: World Health Organization.

Jordan, T.D. (1984) A Handbook of Gravity-flow Water Systems for Small Communities, Rugby, UK: Intermediate Technology Publications.

Kumpel, E. and Nelson, K.L. (2016) ‘Intermittent water supply: prevalence, practice, and microbial water quality’, Environmental Science and Technology 50: 542–53 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.5b03973>.

Luby, S.P., Halder, A.K., Huda, T.M., Unicomb, L., Islam, M.S., Arnold, B.F. and Johnston, R.B. (2015) ‘Microbiological contamination of drinking water associated with subsequent child diarrhea’, American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 93: 904–11 <http://dx.doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.15-2074>.

Mihelcic, J.R., Phillips, L.D. and Watkins, D.W. (2006) ‘Integrating a global perspective into engineering education and research: engineering international sustainable development’, Environmental Engineering Science 23: 426–38 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1089/ees.2006.23.426>.

Mihelcic, J.R., Phillips, L.D., Fry, L.M. and Barkdoll, B.D. (2009) Field Guide to Environmental Engineering for Development Workers: Water, Sanitation, and Indoor Air, Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers.

Orner, K. (2011) Effectiveness of In-Line Chlorination of Gravity Flow Water Supply in Two Rural Communities in Panama [online], Master’s thesis, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa, Florida <http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/3271/> [accessed 28 March 2017].

Parker, A.H., Youlten, R., Dillon, M., Nussbaumer, T., Carter, R.C., Tyrrel, S.F. and Webster, J. (2010) ‘An assessment of microbiological water quality of six water source categories in north-east Uganda’, Journal of Water and Health 9: 550–60 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/wh.2010.128>.

Pickering, A.J., Crider, Y., Amin, N., Bauza, V., Unicomb, L., Davis, J. and Luby, S.P. (2015) ‘Differences in field effectiveness and adoption between a novel automated chlorination system and household manual chlorination of drinking water in Dhaka, Bangladesh: a randomized controlled trial’, PLoS ONE 10: e0118397 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0118397>.

Prüss-Ustün, A., Bartram, J., Clasen, T., Colford, J.M., Cumming, O., Curtis, V., Bonjour, S., Dangour, A.D., De France, J., Fewtrell, L., Freeman, M.C., Gordon, B., Hunter, P.R., Johnston, R.B., Mathers, C., Mäusezahl, D., Medlicott, K., Neira, M., Stocks, M., Wolf, J. and Cairncross, S. (2014) ‘Burden of disease from inadequate water, sanitation and hygiene in low- and middle-income settings: a retrospective analysis of data from 145 countries’, Tropical Medicine and International Health 19: 894–905 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/tmi.12329>.

Schweitzer, R.W. and Mihelcic, J.R. (2012) ‘Assessing sustainability of community management of rural water supply systems in the developing world’, Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development 2: 20–30 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2166/washdev.2012.056>.

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