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• (Article) Global assessment of grant-funded, market-based sanitation development projects

  01.07.2020
  Evidence on the performance of market-based sanitation (MBS) interventions is needed to support renewed focus on using them to deliver sanitation services at scale. We conducted a comprehensive review of WASH grant-funding since 1980 to identify household sanitation supply projects using an MBS approach, assessed project characteristics and outcomes (population impacted), and reviewed project strategies against three key factors for scaling MBS (customer and business finance; availability and viability of local entrepreneurs; appropriate toilet product and business models). For a subset with higher outcomes, we assessed project strategies more fully against nine MBS strategies considered good practice, and the programme’s ability to leverage household investment. Of 103 sanitation supply projects in eight global databases, 49 qualified as MBS and occurred in 22 countries across sub-Saharan Africa, South/Southeast Asia, and Latin America. Cumulatively, 27.6 million people, nearly all rural, gained access to basic sanitation via markets across these projects. ‘Large-scale’ MBS projects exceeding 50,000 people gaining basic sanitation (n = 27) compared with those that did not (n = 22) were longer and significantly more likely to address all three key factors (74 per cent vs. 41 per cent; p = 0.019), but on average applied only six of nine good practice strategies. Outcomes and programme leverage were higher in South/Southeast Asia than in sub-Saharan Africa. However, African projects tended to have shorter duration, fewer reached ‘large-scale’, and rarely employed a sales and marketing strategy. We discuss implications for improving the design and performance of MBS interventions globally and particularly in sub-Saharan Africa.

• (Article) Addressing women’s needs in water access for economic use: the case of Wukro town, Ethiopia

  01.07.2020
  In urban areas where water is not adequately supplied, women’s efforts to make a living out of water-intensive businesses face many challenges. The study examined how small-scale businesses run by women in Wukro town, Ethiopia are impacted by inadequate supply of water, and what coping strategies are employed. The lived experiences of women involved in small-scale water-intensive businesses, such as traditional beer brewing and coffee shops, were examined. In addition to these women, the perspectives and experiences of selected key informants as well as the officers at the local water utility have been assessed. Whether or not these women secure support from the social networks in their neighbourhood has also been considered. The study revealed that the unreliable supply of water in the town has impacted women involved in small business. It was indicated that some women manage to do well either by borrowing water from neighbours or purchasing from providers. In contrast, others who run businesses in rented houses with limited social networks expressed that they are struggling. Suggestions are made for the water utility to revise its working guidelines related to the provision of water services and to implement a gendered perspective in water management practices.

• (Article) Are ceramic water filters effective in preventing diarrhoea and acute malnutrition among under-five children in Sudan?

  01.07.2020
  Access to safe drinking-water at home is essential during the outpatient treatment of children with acute malnutrition due to their increased vulnerability to infections and disease. The study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of ceramic water filters with safe storage in preventing diarrhoea and acute malnutrition among under-five children in Kassala state, Sudan. It was designed as an open-label randomized controlled trial, comparing two study groups. Data was collected through face-to-face interviews and direct observations, then processed and analysed using Epi Info 7.2.0.1. Use of water filters is a potential predictor of number of diarrhoea episodes per child (P < 0.001). The intervention group had a lower diarrhoea occurrence (P < 0.001), better monthly average weight gain (P = 0.012) and average mid-upper arm circumference increase (P = 0.001), and lower prevalence of acute malnutrition at the end of the study (P = 0.001) compared with the control group. Ceramic water filters with safe storage can be effective in preventing diarrhoea and acute malnutrition, and beneficial to children admitted to Community Management of Acute Malnutrition programmes in Kassala state. More research is needed to understand the pathways to achieving these outcomes. Other WASH interventions may be needed to interrupt the primary vectors of diarrhoea disease transmission in this setting.

• (Article) Fostering smallholder investment and innovation through inclusive financial services

  01.03.2020
  This article provides a framework, with supporting examples, for addressing finance for smallholder investment for innovation. Smallholder households function in interconnected ‘systems’ radiating outwards from the household unit: livelihoods, agricultural market systems, community and society, and infrastructure and policy. An inclusive livelihoods model analyses what would need to be true for uptake of innovations by women, men, and youth, and what financial and non-financial products are needed. ‘Customer centric’ integrated value chain financing solutions are tailored to smallholder market segments along eight pathways for growth. A roadmap for facilitating innovation and change using priority pathways, yet grounded in proven financial and development principles, is recommended. Tools and approaches include: value chain facilitation and capacity development – aggregation, market linkages, and private–public partnerships; financial tools – transaction-based financing, flexible products, and risk mitigators; and innovations in service delivery – digital and ICT applications.

• (Article) Market-based strategies to upscale organic fertilizer use in Nepal to achieve productivity, resilience, and the SDGs

  01.12.2016
  Nepal’s current Agricultural Development Strategy recognizes the need to increase the levels of soil organic matter for productive and sustainable agriculture, and the important role commercial organic fertilizers can play in that process. It advocates for a gradual shift from chemical intensive to more sustainable farming systems; i.e. application of organic as well as balanced inorganic fertilizers to enable sustained levels of production without degrading the soil and environment. To date there has been limited use of commercial organic fertilizers in Nepal. However, recent research has confirmed that semi-organic fertilizer regimes increase yield and enterprises producing organic fertilizers and other soil improvers can be viable. Research has also shown that farmers will use such products if the quality and availability can be assured. This article analyses the situation in Nepal and proposes market-based strategies for policy makers to address the quality and availability issues so that organic matter markets can drive a transition to more productive, sustainable (agroecological), and inclusive agriculture, and thereby enable progress towards agriculture, nutrition, and poverty targets in the SDGs.

• (Article) Technical innovations for small-scale producers and households to process wet cassava peels into high quality animal feed ingredients and aflasafe™ substrate

  01.06.2015
  Nigeria, the world’s largest producer of cassava, harvests 54 million metric tonnes (Mt) of cassava tubers annually. More than 95 per cent of its uses require peeling which generates up to 14 Mt of waste annually; mostly due to challenges related to drying. Sun drying is practically impossible during the wet season and it takes 2–3 days in the dry season to reduce the moisture content of fresh peels from about 60 per cent to 20 per cent or less – a marketable state. This is a report on a multi-centre and multi-disciplinary research work (in its early stages) to better utilize the waste. Ongoing work is showing great potential and has so far dramatically reduced cassava peels moisture content to 12–15 per cent within six sunshine hours using only equipment in current use by small-scale processors and households. The considerably shorter processing ensures high-quality products, low in aflatoxins contamination. Also, in a small sample experiment, when compared to sorghum grains currently being used for the production of aflasafe™ as control, the pellets supported the sporulation of Aspergillus flavus up to 87.5 per cent of the control with better cost effectiveness. The research challenges remain in terms of circumventing drying technologies, creating and maintaining product quality standards, and facilitating and catalysing collective action among adopters. Nevertheless, the research carries huge potential to address feed scarcity, contribute to food security and food safety, clean up the environment, and improve the incomes and livelihoods of people currently engaged in processing cassava tuber into food – 85 per cent of them women.

• (Article) Partnerships in Fairtrade coffee: a close-up look at how buyers and NGOs build supply capacity in Nicaragua

  01.02.2014
  This paper examines efforts by buyers and NGOs to build the supply of Fairtrade coffee from the Nicaragua-based cooperative Soppexcca following the coffee crisis. Support was aimed at transforming Soppexcca into a viable business, able to respond to the needs of its coffee-farming members. Results show that Soppexcca made significant gains, including expansion of infrastructure, growth in membership, and increased financial stability. However, important issues remained, related to democratic governance, future growth and stability, and the provision of services. Results suggest that advances in building cooperatives do not easily translate into increased capacities at the household level. While some important gains were detected, in general, producers struggled to intensify coffee production and take full advantage of their access to preferential markets. This paper makes a plea for deeper discussions about how buyers and NGOs can more effectively contribute to building the supply of high-quality Fairtrade coffee, and the need for increased coordination and mutual learning as part of the process.

• (Article) Variability in traditional processing of gari: a major food security product from cassava

  01.01.2019
  Cassava is a major crop for food security in Nigeria and its principal processed form is gari. Gari processing practices were observed in the south-west (Oyo State) and south-east (Benue State) of Nigeria using two complementary approaches: 1) semi-quantitative surveys with processors (n = 123); and 2) actual detailed measurements at processing units (n = 7). Size of processing operations and types of practices differed significantly between the two states. There were also intra-state differences, influenced by ethnicity and customs. Variability of processing practices should be considered while seeking to improve processing productivity and introducing nutritious varieties of cassava to feed the fast-growing Nigerian population.

• (Article) Nuggets from an old book: A Practical Handbook of Water Supply by F. Dixey (1931)

  01.01.2017
  Frank Dixey’s A Practical Handbook of Water Supply, published in 1931 is briefly reviewed. The text is correlated with current knowledge and experience. It is evident from the book that some of the present challenges in the water supply sector have been around for a long time which leads to the conclusion that effecting a change takes time. Development agencies therefore need to set realistic targets and time frames. Some of the rather old texts should be consulted and reviewed periodically as they may contain very useful information.

• (Article) Can and should sanitation and hygiene programmes be expected to achieve health impacts?

  01.01.2017
  Although the anticipated health benefits are not the only reason for undertaking sanitation and hygiene programmes, they do represent an important part of the justification. Studies and reviews over recent years have shown, however, that the health impacts of sanitation programmes can be quite small or even negligible. They have also provided no solid evidence that integrated (water, sanitation, hygiene) programming has any greater effect than addressing one or two of these components alone. Two questions arise: first, whether a certain level of sanitation usage and hygiene practice within a community is needed in order to achieve a measurable health impact (i.e. whether a minimum percentage of the population should be using safe sanitation); second, whether sanitation and hygiene interventions undertaken without accompanying water supply improvements are likely to have significant health benefits. In this opinion paper some plausible and practically relevant answers to these questions are extracted from the relevant literature. The conclusions are that a high level of sanitation usage (well over 65 per cent) and widespread handwashing practice are necessary to achieve significant health impact; and that in situations where water services are poor, sanitation and hygiene interventions, while valuable for other reasons, are unlikely to have significant health impacts. Sanitation and hygiene programmes may be justifiable even if they do not immediately achieve high levels of compliance and corresponding water supply improvements are not made; however, the justification should not be presented on the grounds of short-term health benefits.

• (Article) Urban community-led total sanitation: a potential way forward for co-producing sanitation services

  01.10.2016
  Community-led total sanitation (CLTS) has been proved to be a successful strategy for tackling the challenge of open defecation in poor rural communities across Africa and Asia. This article explores whether a similar approach can be used in peri-urban and urban areas to help co-produce sanitation facilities and services with inputs from communities, duty bearers, and other sanitation stakeholders. It is argued that an urban CLTS approach does not mean a copy and paste of tools and methods which have proved successful in the rural environment but following a set of similar principles. Based on field experiences different steps are suggested that incorporate these principles and respond to the specific urban sanitation problem. This article helps to articulate and better define urban CLTS as well as giving practical guidance for those wanting to use this kind of approach.

• (Article) WASH challenges to girls’ menstrual hygiene management in Metro Manila, Masbate, and South Central Mindanao, Philippines

  01.07.2016
  This paper examines water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) conditions that enable and hinder Philippine schoolgirls to hygienically manage their menstruation. We collected qualitative data from 13 schools in three regions of the Philippines. Schools in both urban (Metro Manila) and rural areas (Masbate and South Central Mindanao) were included to allow for comparison across settings. Unreliable access to water, lack of disposal mechanisms for menstrual materials, unclean facilities, and insufficient number of latrines were identified as the key barriers to effective menstrual management in Masbate and Metro Manila. In South Central Mindanao, there was greater oversight of WASH hardware at schools and hardware was in better condition, which created a more enabling environment for girls to manage menstruation. Creating an enabling WASH environment for girls to manage menstruation requires sustained support and system oversight, combined with knowledge and information.

• (Article) Menstrual hygiene: a ‘silent’ need during disaster recovery

  01.07.2016
  Post-disaster relief and recovery operations seldom focus on women’s priorities regarding menstrual hygiene. There is an increasing awareness to incorporate inclusive, participatory, and gender-sensitive strategies for implementation of response programmes. This article presents empirical findings related to menstrual hygiene management (MHM), demonstrating it is integral to women’s privacy and safety during recovery. Using case studies from India, the 2012 Assam floods and 2013 Cyclone Phailin in Odisha, this article explores menstrual hygiene practices in a post-disaster context. The data were collected through participatory learning and action tools such as focus group discussions, household interviews, priority ranking, and observations. It emerged that menstrual hygiene was overlooked at the household level during recovery; women and adolescent girls faced seclusion and isolation, exacerbating privacy and security concerns post-disasters. Some humanitarian agencies have an ad hoc approach towards MHM, which is limited to distribution of sanitary pads and does not address the socio-cultural practices around MHM. There is a need for strategic planning to address MHM with a gender-sensitive and inclusive approach. This article draws practical and policy inferences from the research for stronger approaches towards initiating behaviour change in MHM, and addressing attitudes and knowledge regarding menstrual hygiene.

• (Article) Taking Stock: Incompetent at incontinence – why are we ignoring the needs of incontinence sufferers?

  01.07.2016
  How would you cope if you had no control over how you urinated or defecated and regularly or constantly leaked urine or faeces? How would this make you feel? How would you deal with the smell, with the indignity? What if you were a young teenager, traumatized by very stressful events and returned to bed-wetting as a result? And what would you do if you didn’t have the money to buy spare underwear or incontinence protection products or those are simply not available to you? Could you manage if you were suddenly displaced in an emergency and did not have access to a toilet, shower or bathing facilities, or your usual materials and coping mechanisms? What if you lived in a camp and your toilet or bathing shelter was a 5 minute walk away and had a long line in front of it? Would you be able to stand in line at food distribution or water collection points, go to school, or look for or undertake work?

• (Article) Making pathogen hazards visible: a new heuristic to improve sanitation investment efficacy

  01.04.2016
  The public health objective of sanitation is to reduce the risk of negative health outcomes from faecal contamination. For water-based sanitation systems at the household and community scale as practised in Indonesia and perhaps elsewhere, the liquid component of the effluent comprises a significant pathogen hazard. While increasing attention is paid to managing the solid fraction, the hazard in the liquid fraction goes largely unnoticed and unmanaged. This paper proposes the means for a conceptual shift to a focus on the pathogen hazards that matter post-treatment, and where those hazards enter the environment, enabling improved local risk management. Firstly, the paper proposes exponential, rather than arithmetic, representations of pathogen number or concentration, because arithmetic representations of treatment efficacy wrongly suggest low cause for concern. Secondly, the paper introduces and applies the Pathogen Hazard Diagram, a new heuristic applicable at both the local and national scale, that requires only local knowledge and general sanitation reference knowledge to construct, but which can guide policy and action, direct monitoring, and improve the efficacy of sanitation investments.

• (Article) Beyond ‘functionality’ of handpump-supplied rural water services in developing countries

  01.01.2016
  Many rural point-water sources in developing countries consist of wells or boreholes equipped with handpumps. Various estimates have been made of the functionality of such water points, and functionality is now routinely monitored in national and local surveys of service performance. We argue, however, that a single binary (functional/non-functional) indicator is crude and insufficient to provide much information about service sustainability. We set out a categorization of functionality which includes three sub-categories of functional water points and five non-functional sub-categories, with well/handpump water points in mind. We use a simple model to demonstrate that reduction of high rates of early post-construction abandonment and reduction of total downtimes would greatly improve service performance. We show that functionality levels for multi-age populations of wells or boreholes equipped with handpumps would not normally be expected to exceed about 85 per cent. We recommend going beyond functionality monitoring via the collection of quantitative data on rates of abandonment, frequency and duration of breakdown, combined with descriptive narratives of actions to manage and repair water points, in order to generate more nuanced understanding of service performance.

• (Article) The role of handpump corrosion in the contamination and failure of rural water supplies

  01.01.2016
  There has been much discussion over many years regarding the origin of elevated iron concentrations in rural water supplies in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia. High iron concentrations are often assumed to be naturally occurring in groundwater, despite several studies over the last 30 years which also point to the role of handpump corrosion in aggressive groundwater. Handpump standards specify that galvanized iron pump materials should not be used in groundwater due to the risk of corrosion, yet this advice is not always followed. High iron concentrations, whether naturally occurring, or present as a result of corrosion, have an impact on taste, odour, and appearance of water and can promote the growth of unpleasant iron metabolizing bacteria. These effects often result in the abandonment of boreholes, sometimes only a year old, and a return to unprotected and unsafe water sources. Where boreholes are not abandoned, the effects of corrosion can cause pump materials to degrade to the point where the pump becomes inoperable. These outcomes are clearly inconsistent with the provision of sustainable water supply services as a fundamental human right. This paper provides a synthesis of work undertaken in this area over the last 30 years and recent practical experience of WaterAid in investigating these problems in water supplies in north-eastern Uganda.

• (Article) Schoolgirls’ experiences of changing and disposal of menstrual hygiene items and inferences for WASH in schools

  01.10.2015
  Menstrual hygiene management (MHM) challenges during changing and disposal of menstrual items are important in low-income countries (LICs) where schools lack sufficient water and sanitation. Changing in poorly maintained latrines may expose girls to excrement and infection. We examine the frequency of dropping menstrual items and disposal of waste by schoolgirls in a menstrual solutions feasibility study in western Kenya. Drops when changing were reported in 17 per cent (20 per cent <16 years; 16.5 per cent 16 years plus; p=0.04) of girls’ reports overall. Differences by socio-economic status were not evident. Fifty-four per cent of girls dropped at least once. A quarter of girls using pads and cups reported drops in the first few months, reducing to 10 per cent over time, compared with ~30 per cent among traditional item users. One in four accidental drops occurred at school during the study. When dropped at school, most girls swapped the dropped item for a new one, but 24 per cent brushed/washed the item and reused it. While no clinical events occurred during this study, data suggest dropping within latrines could place girls at potential risk of exposure to infection. Disposal of items, or emptying cups, was mostly into the latrine. We conclude that accidental dropping of menstrual items while changing is common, including at school. Prevention will be helped by improving poorly constructed sanitation facilities, shelving, privacy, and staggering/increasing break time for girls to change. Provision of special garbage bins to prevent clogging and overflow of latrines is recommended.

• (Article) Intensifying the social performance and sustainability of microfinance institutions to address the social challenge of sanitation: an Indian case study

  01.10.2015
  The microfinance model has helped to address the world’s social challenges to some extent. Sanitation is one of the world’s social challenges and microfinance can be used as an intervention tool to address this. Worldwide 1.04 billion people still practise open defecation, accounting for 15 per cent of the world population, and of which 594 million are Indians. To address this sanitation problem, Bharathi Women Development Centre (Bharathi), a Tamil Nadu-based non-government organization, used its microfinance programme and group network to educate about the need for toilets, and provided the resources and technical know – how to construct latrines in individual households. So far they have successfully constructed 14,609 toilets by providing microcredit and have experienced no difficulties in repayments of loans, by which it is proved to be a sustainable programme. Bharathi has faced many challenges while implementing this project, such as raising debt fund for on-lending to its sanitation portfolio; shifting the culture of open defecation after construction of toilets, especially with male members of the family; establishing a technical know – how workforce to construct the toilets in rural areas; helping the poorest of the poor to not be burdened by the sanitation loan because of its non-income generating nature; and maintaining the low-cost construction of toilets. This study illustrates how a relatively small NGO microfinance institution was able to create a niche market and implement a sustainable sanitation programme along with its routine microfinance programme by providing awareness, technical assistance, and credit to construct toilets.

• (Article) Small-scale waste-stabilization ponds for rural communities: an undergraduate experimental venture

  01.10.2015
  Though billions of people are without adequate fresh-water resources, even more people lack effective sanitation services. This latter concern is the focus of an appropriate technology initiative (WASTE Programme) of Wheaton College in Illinois which engages undergraduate students and interdisciplinary faculty in experiments with simple, small-scale waste-stabilization ponds for eventual installation in many global communities. Project laboratory data indicate that low-cost, low-maintenance systems can eliminate microbial pathogens and provide nutrient-rich effluent for agricultural use, before recharging the local groundwater.