• 9781780443416.000 1
• 9781780443416.001 13
• Chapter 1: Introduction 13
• 1.1: Brief History of Soapmaking 13
• 1.1.1: The Development of Soapmaking in Europe 13
• 1.1.2: The Development of Soapmaking in Ghana 14
• 1.1.3: Large-scale Soap Production in Ghana 15
• 1.1.4: The Role of Research Institutions in Ghana 15
• 1.2: Definition and Properties 16
• 1.3: Hydrolysis of Soap 16
• 1.4: Detergent Action 17
• Chapter 2: Raw Materials for Soapmaking 18
• 2.1: Fats and Oils 18
• 2.1.1: Classification of Fats and Oils 18
• 2.1.2: Brief Chemistry of Fats and Oils 19
• 2.1.3: Common Oils Used in Ghana for Soapmaking 22
• 2.2: Alkalis 25
• 2.2.1: Caustic Soda 25
• 2.2.2: Description of Process for Local Production 26
• 2.2.3: Caustic Potash 29
• 2.2.4: Description of Process for Local Production 30
• 2.3: Other Raw Materials 31
• Chapter 3: The Choice of Suitable Oils and Fats for Soapmaking 33
• 3.1: Saponification Value 33
• 3.2: Iodine Number 35
• 3.3: INS Factor 35
• 3.3.1: Practical Application of INS Factor 36
• 3.4: Lathering and Solubility Properties of Soap 38
• Chapter 4: Plant and Equipment for Soapmaking 39
• 4:1: Equipment and Plant for Laundry Soap making 39
• 4.1.1: Soap Boiling Tanks 39
• 4.1.2: Caustic Soda Storage Tanks 41
• 4.1.3: Soap Moulding Boxes 41
• 4.1.4: Soap Cutting Tables 41
• 4.1.5: Soap Stamping Machines 43
• 4:2: Equipment and Plant for Toilet Soapmaking 43
• 4.2.1: Mixing Machines 43
• 4.2.2: Milling Machines 44
• 4.2.3: Plodders 45
• 4:3: Other Equipment and Tools 46
• Chapter 5: Pre-Treatment of Fats and Oils for Soapmaking 48
• 5:1: Refining of Oils and Fats 48
• 5.1.1: Alkali Refining 48
• 5.1.2: Another Clarification Method 49
• 5.1.3: Bleaching of Oils and Fats 50
• Chapter 6: The Process of Soapmaking 52
• 6:1: Semi-boiling Process 52
• 6.1.1: Processing Method 52
• 6:2: Full-Boiling Process 54
• 6.2.1: Saponification Process 55
• 6.2.2: Graining Out 56
• 6.2.3: Clear Boiling and Fitting 57
• 6.3: Treatment of Settled Soaps 57
• 6.3.1: Liquoring 58
• 6.3.2: Filling 58
• 6.3.3: Framing 59
• 6.3.4: Drying and Stamping 59
• 6:4: Cold Process 61
• Chapter 7: Small-Scale Production of Toilet Soap 64
• 7:1: Cold Process 64
• 7.2: Milled Toilet Soapmaking 65
• 7.2.1: Drying of Soap Base 65
• 7.2.2: Mixing of Perfume and Dye 65
• 7.2.3: Milling 66
• 7.2.4: Compressing 66
• 7.2.5: Cutting and Stamping 66
• 7.3: Remelted Soaps 66
• Chapter 8: Non-Edible Oils for Soapmaking 67
• 8.1: Neem Oil 67
• 8.1.1: Soapmaking Properties 69
• 8.2: Castor Oil 70
• 8.2.1: Soapmaking Properties 71
• 8.3: Physic Oil 71
• 8.3.1: Soapmaking Properties 71
• 8:4: Process of Soapmaking 73
• Chapter 9: Ghana Standards Specifications for Soaps 75
• 9:1: Filled Hard Soap Specifications 75
• 9:2: Genuine Hard Soap Specifications 76
• 9:3: Filled Carbolic Soap Specifications 76
• 9:4: Toilet Soap Specifications 76
• 9:5: Medicated Soap Specifications 77
• 9:6: Packaging and Marking of Soaps 77
• Appendix 1: Some Typical Formulations for Soaps 79
• Appendix 2: Properties of Soaps from Different Oils/Fats 82

Peter Donkor
Professor Peter Donkor, MD is the second Provost of the College of Health Sciences at Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology in Kumasi, Ghana.