About two billion people in the world have no adequate sanitation provision. This book is a guide to what has been learned about providing sanitation coverage for both rural and urban low-income communities, and outlines what is appropriate, practical and acceptable.

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SANITATION IN
PERSPECTIVE
Why another book?
Sources of experience
What is sanitation?
Sanitation coverage
Some local coverage data
Unreliability of statistics
Sanitation in cities
What is appropriate sanitation?
Improving health
Privacy and convenience
Availability of resources
Criteria for satisfactory sanitation
The environment
People and communities
Management of sanitation
SANITATION AND HEALTH
Disease and death in developing
countries
Transmission of disease
Waterbome diseases
Other transmission routes
Problems with wastewater
Survival of pathogens
Use of treated wastewater
Diarrhoea and worms
Evidence of health benefits
Cost of disease
Reduced mortality and illness
Reduced incidence of worm diseases
Reduced diarrhoea
Mistaken ideas and good understanding
SANITATION ALTERNATIVES
Technology and software
In the open
Why people like the open air
Disadvantages of open defecation
Wrap and carry
Use of latrines
Women's use of latrines
Children's use of latrines
Men and latrines
Shelter and location
Privacy and protection
Doors for shelters
Prestige and status
Separate latrines for men and women
Comfortable latrines
Where to put the latrine
Location for Muslims
Congested sites
Sanitation alternatives
Cultural variations and preferences
Children's latrines
Satisfaction with latrines
Finding out what people want
Classification of methods
PARTB
APPROPRIATE
SANITATION SYSTEMS
PIT LATRINES
The pit and its size
Types of pit latrine
The popularity of pit latrines
Crude pits
Satisfactory simple pit latrines
Pit size and 'life'
Methods of anal cleaning
Rate of solids accumulation
Shallow pits
Large pits
Size for liquid infiltration
Control of flies, mosquitoes
and smell
Fits with lids
Ventilated pits
Permanent VIPs
Vent pipes
Watergate bowls
Water-seal latrines
The water seal
Alternative pour-flush latrines
Full pits and twin pits
Manual emptying of pits
Mechanical emptying of pits
Alternating pits
Double pits
Experience of twin and double pits
Slabs and linings
Slabs
Ferrocement slabs
Domed slabs
Removable slabs
Squat holes, footrests and seats
Pit linings
Pits without linings
Other pit latrines
Borehole latrines
Raised pits
Pits over swamps
EXCRETA AS A RESOURCE
The value of excreta
The value of urine
Compost latrines
Continuous compost latrines
Double vault compost latrines
Aquaculture
Biogas
Food for animals
REMOVAL SYSTEMS, SEPTIC
TANKS AND AQUA PRIVIES
Container systems
Chemical toilets (or chemical closets)
Vaults
Vault and tanker system
Cesspits
Overhung latrines
Conventional sewerage
Advantages of sewerage
Disadvantages of conventional sewerage
Some difficulties with sewerage for lowincome
communities in developing
countries
Non-conventional sewerage (NCS)
or reduced cost sewerage
Experience of NCS systems
Vacuum systems
Conventional septic tanks
Advantages of septic tanks
Disadvantages of septic tanks
Design size of septic tanks
Desludging
Small and extended septic tanks
Aqua privies
TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL
OF LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS
Disposal of liquids
Groundwater pollution
The two metre rule
Sand envelopes
Shallow groundwater
Chemical pollution
Rise of groundwater
Disposal of liquids to surface waters
Disposal of effluent from septic tanks
and aqua privies
Mound soakaways
Sewage treatment and disposal
Irrigation with wastewater 93
Wastewater treatment 94
Conventional sewage treatment 95
Waste stabilization ponds 96
Irrigation with treated wastewater 96
c. The problem of solids disposal 97
d. Treatment and disposal of solids 98
Methods of dealing with septage,
nightsoil and the contents of vaults
and pit latrines 99
PARTC
GETTING APPROPRIATE
SANITATION
8 INDIVIDUAL EFFORTS 101
a. Paying for latrines and willingness to
pay
Paying h ighly for san itation 101
b. Costs (construction, operation and
maintenance) 103
Overall costs 103
Cost of sanitation alternatives 105
Total annual cost per household 106
c. Operation and maintenance 107
Sullage in pits 108
Hygiene education 109
Controlling nuisance 109
Dealing with pits 110
Water seals and sewer connections 112
9 COMMUNITY EFFORTS 113
a. Community management, motivation
and mobilization
Communities and participation 113
Communities working together 113
Promotion and motivation 114
Community committees 116
Demonstration latrines 116
Appropriate technology for community
participation 117
Affordable participation 118
Delays with participation 118
Communities and professionals 118
b. Help from agencies 119
Help with software 119
Paying all the cost 120
Subsidies 120
Governments 121
Donors 122
NGOs and the private sector 122
c. Regulations, control, planning 124
Inappropriate regulations 124
Responsible authorities 124
Master plans 125
d. Public and communal latrines 125
Unsatisfactory public latrines 127
Popular public latrines 128
Operation by contractors 130
e. School latrines 131
10 SELECTION, EVALUATION
AND UPGRADING 133
a. Guides for selection
b. Information for selection
c. Evaluation
d. Upgrading
Upgrading pit latrines
ANNEXES
I Statistics for low income countries
II Glossary
HI Gazetteer - an index of places
IV References
V Index

John Pickford
John Pickford (1927-2006) founded the Water Engineering and Development Centre at Loughborough University 40 years ago.