Low-Cost Sanitation
A survey of practical experience
About two billion people in the world have no adequate sanitation provision. This book is a guide to what has been learned about providing sanitation coverage for both rural and urban low-income communities, and outlines what is appropriate, practical and acceptable.
Published: 1995
Pages: 176
eBook: 9781780445366
Paperback: 9781853392337
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| SANITATION IN | |||
| PERSPECTIVE | |||
| Why another book? | |||
| Sources of experience | |||
| What is sanitation? | |||
| Sanitation coverage | |||
| Some local coverage data | |||
| Unreliability of statistics | |||
| Sanitation in cities | |||
| What is appropriate sanitation? | |||
| Improving health | |||
| Privacy and convenience | |||
| Availability of resources | |||
| Criteria for satisfactory sanitation | |||
| The environment | |||
| People and communities | |||
| Management of sanitation | |||
| SANITATION AND HEALTH | |||
| Disease and death in developing | |||
| countries | |||
| Transmission of disease | |||
| Waterbome diseases | |||
| Other transmission routes | |||
| Problems with wastewater | |||
| Survival of pathogens | |||
| Use of treated wastewater | |||
| Diarrhoea and worms | |||
| Evidence of health benefits | |||
| Cost of disease | |||
| Reduced mortality and illness | |||
| Reduced incidence of worm diseases | |||
| Reduced diarrhoea | |||
| Mistaken ideas and good understanding | |||
| SANITATION ALTERNATIVES | |||
| Technology and software | |||
| In the open | |||
| Why people like the open air | |||
| Disadvantages of open defecation | |||
| Wrap and carry | |||
| Use of latrines | |||
| Women's use of latrines | |||
| Children's use of latrines | |||
| Men and latrines | |||
| Shelter and location | |||
| Privacy and protection | |||
| Doors for shelters | |||
| Prestige and status | |||
| Separate latrines for men and women | |||
| Comfortable latrines | |||
| Where to put the latrine | |||
| Location for Muslims | |||
| Congested sites | |||
| Sanitation alternatives | |||
| Cultural variations and preferences | |||
| Children's latrines | |||
| Satisfaction with latrines | |||
| Finding out what people want | |||
| Classification of methods | |||
| PARTB | |||
| APPROPRIATE | |||
| SANITATION SYSTEMS | |||
| PIT LATRINES | |||
| The pit and its size | |||
| Types of pit latrine | |||
| The popularity of pit latrines | |||
| Crude pits | |||
| Satisfactory simple pit latrines | |||
| Pit size and 'life' | |||
| Methods of anal cleaning | |||
| Rate of solids accumulation | |||
| Shallow pits | |||
| Large pits | |||
| Size for liquid infiltration | |||
| Control of flies, mosquitoes | |||
| and smell | |||
| Fits with lids | |||
| Ventilated pits | |||
| Permanent VIPs | |||
| Vent pipes | |||
| Watergate bowls | |||
| Water-seal latrines | |||
| The water seal | |||
| Alternative pour-flush latrines | |||
| Full pits and twin pits | |||
| Manual emptying of pits | |||
| Mechanical emptying of pits | |||
| Alternating pits | |||
| Double pits | |||
| Experience of twin and double pits | |||
| Slabs and linings | |||
| Slabs | |||
| Ferrocement slabs | |||
| Domed slabs | |||
| Removable slabs | |||
| Squat holes, footrests and seats | |||
| Pit linings | |||
| Pits without linings | |||
| Other pit latrines | |||
| Borehole latrines | |||
| Raised pits | |||
| Pits over swamps | |||
| EXCRETA AS A RESOURCE | |||
| The value of excreta | |||
| The value of urine | |||
| Compost latrines | |||
| Continuous compost latrines | |||
| Double vault compost latrines | |||
| Aquaculture | |||
| Biogas | |||
| Food for animals | |||
| REMOVAL SYSTEMS, SEPTIC | |||
| TANKS AND AQUA PRIVIES | |||
| Container systems | |||
| Chemical toilets (or chemical closets) | |||
| Vaults | |||
| Vault and tanker system | |||
| Cesspits | |||
| Overhung latrines | |||
| Conventional sewerage | |||
| Advantages of sewerage | |||
| Disadvantages of conventional sewerage | |||
| Some difficulties with sewerage for lowincome | |||
| communities in developing | |||
| countries | |||
| Non-conventional sewerage (NCS) | |||
| or reduced cost sewerage | |||
| Experience of NCS systems | |||
| Vacuum systems | |||
| Conventional septic tanks | |||
| Advantages of septic tanks | |||
| Disadvantages of septic tanks | |||
| Design size of septic tanks | |||
| Desludging | |||
| Small and extended septic tanks | |||
| Aqua privies | |||
| TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL | |||
| OF LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS | |||
| Disposal of liquids | |||
| Groundwater pollution | |||
| The two metre rule | |||
| Sand envelopes | |||
| Shallow groundwater | |||
| Chemical pollution | |||
| Rise of groundwater | |||
| Disposal of liquids to surface waters | |||
| Disposal of effluent from septic tanks | |||
| and aqua privies | |||
| Mound soakaways | |||
| Sewage treatment and disposal | |||
| Irrigation with wastewater 93 | |||
| Wastewater treatment 94 | |||
| Conventional sewage treatment 95 | |||
| Waste stabilization ponds 96 | |||
| Irrigation with treated wastewater 96 | |||
| c. The problem of solids disposal 97 | |||
| d. Treatment and disposal of solids 98 | |||
| Methods of dealing with septage, | |||
| nightsoil and the contents of vaults | |||
| and pit latrines 99 | |||
| PARTC | |||
| GETTING APPROPRIATE | |||
| SANITATION | |||
| 8 INDIVIDUAL EFFORTS 101 | |||
| a. Paying for latrines and willingness to | |||
| pay | |||
| Paying h ighly for san itation 101 | |||
| b. Costs (construction, operation and | |||
| maintenance) 103 | |||
| Overall costs 103 | |||
| Cost of sanitation alternatives 105 | |||
| Total annual cost per household 106 | |||
| c. Operation and maintenance 107 | |||
| Sullage in pits 108 | |||
| Hygiene education 109 | |||
| Controlling nuisance 109 | |||
| Dealing with pits 110 | |||
| Water seals and sewer connections 112 | |||
| 9 COMMUNITY EFFORTS 113 | |||
| a. Community management, motivation | |||
| and mobilization | |||
| Communities and participation 113 | |||
| Communities working together 113 | |||
| Promotion and motivation 114 | |||
| Community committees 116 | |||
| Demonstration latrines 116 | |||
| Appropriate technology for community | |||
| participation 117 | |||
| Affordable participation 118 | |||
| Delays with participation 118 | |||
| Communities and professionals 118 | |||
| b. Help from agencies 119 | |||
| Help with software 119 | |||
| Paying all the cost 120 | |||
| Subsidies 120 | |||
| Governments 121 | |||
| Donors 122 | |||
| NGOs and the private sector 122 | |||
| c. Regulations, control, planning 124 | |||
| Inappropriate regulations 124 | |||
| Responsible authorities 124 | |||
| Master plans 125 | |||
| d. Public and communal latrines 125 | |||
| Unsatisfactory public latrines 127 | |||
| Popular public latrines 128 | |||
| Operation by contractors 130 | |||
| e. School latrines 131 | |||
| 10 SELECTION, EVALUATION | |||
| AND UPGRADING 133 | |||
| a. Guides for selection | |||
| b. Information for selection | |||
| c. Evaluation | |||
| d. Upgrading | |||
| Upgrading pit latrines | |||
| ANNEXES | |||
| I Statistics for low income countries | |||
| II Glossary | |||
| HI Gazetteer - an index of places | |||
| IV References | |||
| V Index |
John Pickford
John Pickford (1927-2006) founded the Water Engineering and Development Centre at Loughborough University 40 years ago.
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