Low-Cost Sanitation
A survey of practical experience
About two billion people in the world have no adequate sanitation provision. This book is a guide to what has been learned about providing sanitation coverage for both rural and urban low-income communities, and outlines what is appropriate, practical and acceptable.
Published: 1995
Pages: 176
eBook: 9781780445366
Paperback: 9781853392337
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SANITATION IN | |||
PERSPECTIVE | |||
Why another book? | |||
Sources of experience | |||
What is sanitation? | |||
Sanitation coverage | |||
Some local coverage data | |||
Unreliability of statistics | |||
Sanitation in cities | |||
What is appropriate sanitation? | |||
Improving health | |||
Privacy and convenience | |||
Availability of resources | |||
Criteria for satisfactory sanitation | |||
The environment | |||
People and communities | |||
Management of sanitation | |||
SANITATION AND HEALTH | |||
Disease and death in developing | |||
countries | |||
Transmission of disease | |||
Waterbome diseases | |||
Other transmission routes | |||
Problems with wastewater | |||
Survival of pathogens | |||
Use of treated wastewater | |||
Diarrhoea and worms | |||
Evidence of health benefits | |||
Cost of disease | |||
Reduced mortality and illness | |||
Reduced incidence of worm diseases | |||
Reduced diarrhoea | |||
Mistaken ideas and good understanding | |||
SANITATION ALTERNATIVES | |||
Technology and software | |||
In the open | |||
Why people like the open air | |||
Disadvantages of open defecation | |||
Wrap and carry | |||
Use of latrines | |||
Women's use of latrines | |||
Children's use of latrines | |||
Men and latrines | |||
Shelter and location | |||
Privacy and protection | |||
Doors for shelters | |||
Prestige and status | |||
Separate latrines for men and women | |||
Comfortable latrines | |||
Where to put the latrine | |||
Location for Muslims | |||
Congested sites | |||
Sanitation alternatives | |||
Cultural variations and preferences | |||
Children's latrines | |||
Satisfaction with latrines | |||
Finding out what people want | |||
Classification of methods | |||
PARTB | |||
APPROPRIATE | |||
SANITATION SYSTEMS | |||
PIT LATRINES | |||
The pit and its size | |||
Types of pit latrine | |||
The popularity of pit latrines | |||
Crude pits | |||
Satisfactory simple pit latrines | |||
Pit size and 'life' | |||
Methods of anal cleaning | |||
Rate of solids accumulation | |||
Shallow pits | |||
Large pits | |||
Size for liquid infiltration | |||
Control of flies, mosquitoes | |||
and smell | |||
Fits with lids | |||
Ventilated pits | |||
Permanent VIPs | |||
Vent pipes | |||
Watergate bowls | |||
Water-seal latrines | |||
The water seal | |||
Alternative pour-flush latrines | |||
Full pits and twin pits | |||
Manual emptying of pits | |||
Mechanical emptying of pits | |||
Alternating pits | |||
Double pits | |||
Experience of twin and double pits | |||
Slabs and linings | |||
Slabs | |||
Ferrocement slabs | |||
Domed slabs | |||
Removable slabs | |||
Squat holes, footrests and seats | |||
Pit linings | |||
Pits without linings | |||
Other pit latrines | |||
Borehole latrines | |||
Raised pits | |||
Pits over swamps | |||
EXCRETA AS A RESOURCE | |||
The value of excreta | |||
The value of urine | |||
Compost latrines | |||
Continuous compost latrines | |||
Double vault compost latrines | |||
Aquaculture | |||
Biogas | |||
Food for animals | |||
REMOVAL SYSTEMS, SEPTIC | |||
TANKS AND AQUA PRIVIES | |||
Container systems | |||
Chemical toilets (or chemical closets) | |||
Vaults | |||
Vault and tanker system | |||
Cesspits | |||
Overhung latrines | |||
Conventional sewerage | |||
Advantages of sewerage | |||
Disadvantages of conventional sewerage | |||
Some difficulties with sewerage for lowincome | |||
communities in developing | |||
countries | |||
Non-conventional sewerage (NCS) | |||
or reduced cost sewerage | |||
Experience of NCS systems | |||
Vacuum systems | |||
Conventional septic tanks | |||
Advantages of septic tanks | |||
Disadvantages of septic tanks | |||
Design size of septic tanks | |||
Desludging | |||
Small and extended septic tanks | |||
Aqua privies | |||
TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL | |||
OF LIQUIDS AND SOLIDS | |||
Disposal of liquids | |||
Groundwater pollution | |||
The two metre rule | |||
Sand envelopes | |||
Shallow groundwater | |||
Chemical pollution | |||
Rise of groundwater | |||
Disposal of liquids to surface waters | |||
Disposal of effluent from septic tanks | |||
and aqua privies | |||
Mound soakaways | |||
Sewage treatment and disposal | |||
Irrigation with wastewater 93 | |||
Wastewater treatment 94 | |||
Conventional sewage treatment 95 | |||
Waste stabilization ponds 96 | |||
Irrigation with treated wastewater 96 | |||
c. The problem of solids disposal 97 | |||
d. Treatment and disposal of solids 98 | |||
Methods of dealing with septage, | |||
nightsoil and the contents of vaults | |||
and pit latrines 99 | |||
PARTC | |||
GETTING APPROPRIATE | |||
SANITATION | |||
8 INDIVIDUAL EFFORTS 101 | |||
a. Paying for latrines and willingness to | |||
pay | |||
Paying h ighly for san itation 101 | |||
b. Costs (construction, operation and | |||
maintenance) 103 | |||
Overall costs 103 | |||
Cost of sanitation alternatives 105 | |||
Total annual cost per household 106 | |||
c. Operation and maintenance 107 | |||
Sullage in pits 108 | |||
Hygiene education 109 | |||
Controlling nuisance 109 | |||
Dealing with pits 110 | |||
Water seals and sewer connections 112 | |||
9 COMMUNITY EFFORTS 113 | |||
a. Community management, motivation | |||
and mobilization | |||
Communities and participation 113 | |||
Communities working together 113 | |||
Promotion and motivation 114 | |||
Community committees 116 | |||
Demonstration latrines 116 | |||
Appropriate technology for community | |||
participation 117 | |||
Affordable participation 118 | |||
Delays with participation 118 | |||
Communities and professionals 118 | |||
b. Help from agencies 119 | |||
Help with software 119 | |||
Paying all the cost 120 | |||
Subsidies 120 | |||
Governments 121 | |||
Donors 122 | |||
NGOs and the private sector 122 | |||
c. Regulations, control, planning 124 | |||
Inappropriate regulations 124 | |||
Responsible authorities 124 | |||
Master plans 125 | |||
d. Public and communal latrines 125 | |||
Unsatisfactory public latrines 127 | |||
Popular public latrines 128 | |||
Operation by contractors 130 | |||
e. School latrines 131 | |||
10 SELECTION, EVALUATION | |||
AND UPGRADING 133 | |||
a. Guides for selection | |||
b. Information for selection | |||
c. Evaluation | |||
d. Upgrading | |||
Upgrading pit latrines | |||
ANNEXES | |||
I Statistics for low income countries | |||
II Glossary | |||
HI Gazetteer - an index of places | |||
IV References | |||
V Index |
John Pickford
John Pickford (1927-2006) founded the Water Engineering and Development Centre at Loughborough University 40 years ago.
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