Understanding the magnitude of food loss and waste (FLW), and where in the value chain it occurs, can provide policy perspectives for targeting innovations and business opportunities to reduce FLW. Since the seminal 2011 Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) report on global FLW and the adoption of the UN Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 12.3 (By 2030, halve per capita global food waste), there has been a surge of research efforts quantifying FLW in recent years. However, there is disagreement over how best to measure FLW. Without reliable data, it will be challenging to derive policy and action that target FLW hotspots. In this synthesis, we review the available tools for measuring FLW, their advantages and disadvantages, and comprehensively assess their ranking in terms of accuracy, cost, and meaningfulness. The methods for quantifying FLW may vary according to the stages and types of a food supply chain, for which different resources and technical capabilities are required. Therefore, a strong call to standardize FLW quantification methodologies is imperative in order to harmonize measurement tools and methods.

Affognon, H., Mutungi, C., Sanginga, P. and Borgemeister, C. (2015) ‘Unpacking post-harvest losses in Sub-Saharan Africa: a meta-analysis’, World Development 66: 49–68.

African Postharvest Losses Information System (APHLIS) (2018) The African Postharvest Losses Information System [website], <www.aphlis.net>. [accessed 1 July 2022]

African Postharvest Losses Information System (APHLIS) (2022) ‘Global agribusiness Olam Agri works with smallholders to measure and reduce losses at and after harvest in agri-supply chains’ <https://www.aphlis.net/en/news/52/global-agribusiness-olam-agri-works-with-smallholders-to-measure-and-reduce-losses-at-and-after-harvest-in-agri-supply-chains>.[accessed 1 July 2022]

Ahmad, T., Sud, U.C., Rai, A., Sahoo, P.M., Jha, S.N. and Vishwakarma, R.K. (2016) ‘Sampling methodology for estimation of harvest and post-harvest losses of major crops and commodities’, paper presented during the Global Strategy Outreach Workshop on Agricultural Statistics, 24–25 October, FAO Headquarters, Rome.

Bellemare, M.F., Çakir, M., Peterson, H.H., Novak, L. and Rudi, J. (2017)’, On the measurement of food waste, American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 99(5): 1148–58 <https://ssrn.com/abstract=3577886 or http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajae/aax034>.

Bernstad Saraiva Schott, A. and Andersson, T. (2015) ‘Food waste minimisation from a life-cycle perspective’, Journal of Environmental Management 147: 219−26.

Bourne, M.C. (1977) Post Harvest Food Losses – The Neglected Dimension in Increasing the World Food Supply, New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Department of Food Science and Technology, Geneva (USA).

Buzby, J.C. and Guthrie, J.F. (2002) ‘Plate waste in school nutrition programs: final report to Congress’, Rep. E-FAN-02-009, Econ. Res. Serv., US Department of Agriculture <https://www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/publications/43131/31216_efan02009.pdf?v=41423>.

Buzby, J.C., Wells, H.F. and Hyman, J. (2014) ‘The estimated amount, value, and calories of postharvest food losses at the retail and consumer levels in the United States’, Economic Information Bulletin EIB-121, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC.

Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC) (2019) Why and How to Measure Food Loss and Waste: A Practical Guide, Commission for Environmental Cooperation, Montreal.

De Lucia, M. and Assennato, D. (1994). ‘Agricultural engineering in development: post- harvest operations and management of foodgrains’, FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin 93, FAO, Rome.

Dias-Ferreira, C., Santos, T. and Oliveira, V. (2015) ‘Hospital food waste and environmental and economic indicators - a Portuguese case study’, Waste Management 46: 146−54.

Eriksson, M., Strid, I. and Hansson, P.-A. (2014) ‘Waste of organic and conventional meat and dairy products: A case study from Swedish retail’, Resources, Conservation & Recycling 83(83): 44−52.

Fabi, C., Cachia, F., Conforti, P., English, A. and Rosero Moncayo, J. (2021) ‘Improving data on food losses and waste: from theory to practice’, Food Policy 98: 101934, ISSN 0306-9192, <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2020.101934>.

Falasconi, L., Vittuari, M., Politano, A. and Segrè, A. (2015) ‘Food waste in school catering: an Italian case study’, Sustainability 7(11): 14745−60.

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (1981) ‘Food loss prevention in perishable crops’, Agricultural Services Bulletin. 43, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.

Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) (2011) Global Food Losses and Food Waste − Extent, Causes, and Prevention, FAO, Rome.

Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) (2014) Food Wastage Footprint <https://www.fao.org/3/i3991e/i3991e.pdf>.

Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) (2017) The Future of Food and Agriculture – Trends and Challenges. Rome. <https://www.fao.org/3/i6583e/i6583e.pdf>.

Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), IFAD, UNICEF, WFP, and WHO (2018) The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2018: Building Climate Resilience for Food Security and Nutrition, FAO, Rome.

Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) (2018), Guidelines on the Measurement of Harvest and Post-Harvest Losses: Recommendations on the Design of a Harvest and Post-Harvest Loss Statistics System for Food Grains (Cereals and Pulses), GSARS, Rome, Italy.

Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) (2019), The State of Food and Agriculture 2019. Moving Forward on Food Loss and Waste Reduction, FAO, Rome.

Foresight (2011) Workshop Report W4. How can Waste Reduction Help to Healthily and Sustainably Feed a Future Global Population of Nine Billion People? Expert Forum on the Reduction of Food Waste, organised by the UK Science and Innovation Network in collaboration with Foresight, 23–24 February 2010. the Rubens Hotel, London, UK Science and Innovation with Foresight

Global Strategy to Improve Agricultural and Rural Statistics (GSARS) (2017) ‘Field test report on the estimation of crop yields and post-harvest losses in Ghana’, Global Strategy Technical Report GO-29-2017, FAO, Rome.

Grandhi, B. and Appaiah Singh, J. (2016) ‘What a waste! A study of food wastage behavior in Singapore’, Journal of Food Products Marketing 22: 471−85.

Grolleaud, M. (2002) Post-Harvest Losses: Discovering the Full Story. Overview of the Phenomenon of Losses During the Post-Harvest System. Rome (Italy). Agricultural Support Systems Div. eng.

Gustavsson, J., Cederberg, C., Sonesson, U., Otterdijk, R. and van Meybeck, A. (2011) Global Food Losses and Food Waste: Extent, Causes and Prevention, FAO, Rome.

Gustavsson, J., Bos-Brouwers, H., Timmermans, T., Hansen, O-J., Møller, H., et al.. (2014) FUSIONS Definitional Framework for Food Waste - Full Report. Project report FUSIONS. [Contract] 03072014, 2014. ffhal-02800861f

Hall, K.D., Guo, J., Dore, M. and Chow C.C. (2009) ‘The progressive increase of food waste in America and its environmental impact’, PLOS ONE 4(11):e7940.

High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition (HLPE) (2020) Food Security and Nutrition: Building a Global Narrative Towards 2030, report by the High-Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security, Rome.

Hodges, R., Buzby, J. and Bennett, B. (2011) ‘Post-harvest losses and waste in developed and less developed countries: opportunities to improve resource use’, The Journal of Agricultural Science 149(S1): 37–45, <https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021859610000936>.

Jha, S.N., Vishwakarma, R.K., Ahmad, T., Rai, A. and Dixit, K. (2015) Report on Assessmentof Quantitative Harvest and Post-Harvest Losses of Major Crops and Commodities in India, Joint Publication of ICAR and All India Coordinated Research Project on Post-Harvest Technology, Ludhiana, India.

Johnson, L.K., Dunning, R.D., Bloom, J.D., Gunter, C.C., Boyette, M.D. and Creamer, N.G. (2018) ‘Estimating on farm food loss at the field level: a methodology and applied case study on a North Carolina farm’, Resources, Conservation & Recycling137: 243–50.

Kaminski, J. and Christiaensen, L. (2014) ‘Post-harvest loss in sub-Saharan Africa – what do farmers say?’, Global Food Security 3(3): 149–58.

Katajajuuri, j.M., Silvennoinen, K., Hartikainen, H., Heikkilä, L., Reinikainen, ‘A., Food waste in the Finnish food chain’, Journal of Cleaner Production, 73: 322–9.

Kitinoja, L., Tokala, V.Y. and Brondy, A. (2018) ‘Challenges and opportunities for improved post-harvest loss measurements in plant-based food crops’, Journal of Postharvest Technology 6(4): 16–34.

Langley, J., Yoxall, A., Heppell, G., Rodriguez, E.M., Bradbury, S., Lewis, R., Luxmoore, J., Hodzic, A. and Rowson, J. (2010) ‘Food for thought? A U.K. pilot study testing a methodology for compositional domestic food waste analysis’, Waste Management and Research 28(3): 220−7.

Lebersorger S., Schneider F., ‘Food loss rates at the food retail, influencing factors and reasons as a basis for waste prevention measures’. Waste Management 34(11): 1911-9. <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2014.06.013>.

Lebersorger, S. and Schneider, F. (2011) ‘Discussion on the methodology for determining food waste in household waste composition studies’, Waste Management 31(9–10): 1924–33.

Møller, H., Vold, M., Schakenda, V., Hanssen, O.J. (2012). Mapping Method for Food Loss in the Food Processing Industry - Summary Report. Oslo, Ostfold research.

Parfitt, J., Barthel, M. and MacNaughton, S. (2010) ‘Food waste within food supply chains: quantification and potential for change to 2050’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 365(1554): 3065–81.

Parmar, A. (2018) Post-Harvest Handling Practices and Associated Food Losses in Sweetpotato and Cassava Value Chains of Southern Ethiopia, PhD Dissertation, University of Kassel, Germany <https://kobra.uni-kassel.de/bitstream/handle/123456789/2018021254576/DissertationAdityaParmar.pdf>.

Paris Agreement (2015) United Nations Paris Agreement. The Paris Agreement | United Nations [accessed on 15 August 2022].

Reardon, T., Echeverria, R., Berdegué, J., Minten, B., Liverpool-Tasie, S., Tschirley, D. and Zilberman, D. (2018) ‘Rapid transformation of food systems in developing regions: highlighting the role of agricultural research & innovation’, Agricultural Systems 172: 47–59.

Scholz, K., Eriksson, M. and Strid, I. (2015) ‘Carbon footprint of supermarket food waste’, Resources, Conservation & Recycling 94: 56−65.

Sheahan, M. and Barrett, C.B. (2017) ‘Review: food loss and waste in Sub-Saharan Africa’,Food Policy 70: 1–12.

Shee, A., Mayanja, S., Simba, E., Stathers, T., Bechoff, A. and Bennett, B. (2019) ‘Determinants of post-harvest losses along smallholder producers maise and sweetpotato value chains: an ordered probit analysis’, Food Security 11: 1101 <https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-019-00949-4>.

Spang, E.S., Moreno, L.C., Pace, S.A., Achmon, Y., Donis-Gonzalez., I. and Gosliner, W.A. (2019) ‘Food loss and waste: measurement, drivers and solutions’, Annual Review of Environment and Resources 44: 117–56.

Stancu, v., Haugaard, P., Lähteenmäki L. ‘Determinants of consumer food waste behaviour: two routes to food waste’ Appetite, 96: 7–17.

Stefan, V., Van Herpen, E., Tudoran, A.A., Lähteenmäki L., (2103) ‘Avoiding food waste by Romanian consumers: the importance of planning and shopping routines’ Food Qual. Prefer 28: 375–81.

Stenmarck, A., Jensen, C., Quested, T., Moates, G., et al.(2016) FUSIONS - Estimates of European Food Waste Levels - Full Report. Project report FUSIONS. <https://www.eu-fusions.org/phocadownload/Publications/Estimates%20of%20European%20food%20waste%20levels.pdf>.

Tesco (2018) ‘How we calculate our food waste figures (UK)’, Tesco PLC, <https://www.tescoplc.com/sustainability/downloads/how-we-calculate-our-food-waste-figures-uk/>.

United Nations (2015) ‘Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development’, A/RES/70/1 <https://sdgs.un.org/2030agenda>.

United Nations Environment Programme (2021), Food Waste Index Report 2021. Nairobi.

Van Greffen, L.E.J, van Herpen, E. and van Trijp, J.C.M. (2016) Causes & Determinants of Consumers Food Waste: A Theoretical Framework <https://eu-refresh.org/sites/default/files/Causes%20&%20Determinants%20of%20Consumers%20Food%20Waste_0.pdf>.

van Herpen, E., van der Lans, I., Nijenhuis-de Vries, M., Holthuysen, N., Kremer, S. and Stijnen, D. (2016) Consumption Life Cycle Contributions: Assessment of Practical Methodologies for In-Home Food Waste Measurement, Rep., EU Horizon 2020 REFRESH, Wageningen, NL.

Waste Reduction Action Programme (WRAP) (2012) Methods Used for Household Food and Drink Waste in the UK, Annex Rep. v2, 1–102, WRAP, Banbury.

Willett, W., Rockström, J., Loken, B., Springmann, M., Lang, T., Vermeulen, S. et al. (2019) ‘Food in the Anthropocene: the EAT–Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems’, Lancet 393(10170): 447–92.

World Resources Institute (WRI) (2016a) Food Loss + Waste: Guidance on FLW Quantification Methods, Accounting and Reporting Standard, Version 1.0, <https://flwprotocol.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/FLW_Protocol_Guidance_on_FLW_Quantification_Methods.pdf>.

World Resources Institute (WRI) (2016b) Guidance on FLW Quantification Methods: Supplement to the Food Loss and Waste (FLW) Accounting and Reporting Standard, Version 1.0, Rep. 1–90, WRI, Washington DC.

WWF-WRAP (2020) Halving Food Loss and Waste in the EU by 2030: The Major Steps Needed to Accelerate Progress, Berlin.

Xue, L., Liu, G., Parfitt, J., Liu, X., Van Herpen, E., Stenmarck, A., O’Connor, C., Östergren, K. and Cheng, S. (2017) ‘Missing food, missing data? A critical review of global food losses and food waste data’, Environmental Science & Technology, 51(12): 6618–33.

Affognon, H., Mutungi, C., Sanginga, P. and Borgemeister, C. (2015) ‘Unpacking post-harvest losses in Sub-Saharan Africa: a meta-analysis’, World Development 66: 49–68.

African Postharvest Losses Information System (APHLIS) (2018) The African Postharvest Losses Information System [website], <www.aphlis.net>. [accessed 1 July 2022]

African Postharvest Losses Information System (APHLIS) (2022) ‘Global agribusiness Olam Agri works with smallholders to measure and reduce losses at and after harvest in agri-supply chains’ <https://www.aphlis.net/en/news/52/global-agribusiness-olam-agri-works-with-smallholders-to-measure-and-reduce-losses-at-and-after-harvest-in-agri-supply-chains>.[accessed 1 July 2022]

Ahmad, T., Sud, U.C., Rai, A., Sahoo, P.M., Jha, S.N. and Vishwakarma, R.K. (2016) ‘Sampling methodology for estimation of harvest and post-harvest losses of major crops and commodities’, paper presented during the Global Strategy Outreach Workshop on Agricultural Statistics, 24–25 October, FAO Headquarters, Rome.

Bellemare, M.F., Çakir, M., Peterson, H.H., Novak, L. and Rudi, J. (2017)’, On the measurement of food waste, American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 99(5): 1148–58 <https://ssrn.com/abstract=3577886 or http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajae/aax034>.

Bernstad Saraiva Schott, A. and Andersson, T. (2015) ‘Food waste minimisation from a life-cycle perspective’, Journal of Environmental Management 147: 219−26.

Bourne, M.C. (1977) Post Harvest Food Losses – The Neglected Dimension in Increasing the World Food Supply, New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, Department of Food Science and Technology, Geneva (USA).

Buzby, J.C. and Guthrie, J.F. (2002) ‘Plate waste in school nutrition programs: final report to Congress’, Rep. E-FAN-02-009, Econ. Res. Serv., US Department of Agriculture <https://www.ers.usda.gov/webdocs/publications/43131/31216_efan02009.pdf?v=41423>.

Buzby, J.C., Wells, H.F. and Hyman, J. (2014) ‘The estimated amount, value, and calories of postharvest food losses at the retail and consumer levels in the United States’, Economic Information Bulletin EIB-121, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC.

Commission for Environmental Cooperation (CEC) (2019) Why and How to Measure Food Loss and Waste: A Practical Guide, Commission for Environmental Cooperation, Montreal.

De Lucia, M. and Assennato, D. (1994). ‘Agricultural engineering in development: post- harvest operations and management of foodgrains’, FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin 93, FAO, Rome.

Dias-Ferreira, C., Santos, T. and Oliveira, V. (2015) ‘Hospital food waste and environmental and economic indicators - a Portuguese case study’, Waste Management 46: 146−54.

Eriksson, M., Strid, I. and Hansson, P.-A. (2014) ‘Waste of organic and conventional meat and dairy products: A case study from Swedish retail’, Resources, Conservation & Recycling 83(83): 44−52.

Fabi, C., Cachia, F., Conforti, P., English, A. and Rosero Moncayo, J. (2021) ‘Improving data on food losses and waste: from theory to practice’, Food Policy 98: 101934, ISSN 0306-9192, <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2020.101934>.

Falasconi, L., Vittuari, M., Politano, A. and Segrè, A. (2015) ‘Food waste in school catering: an Italian case study’, Sustainability 7(11): 14745−60.

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (1981) ‘Food loss prevention in perishable crops’, Agricultural Services Bulletin. 43, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.

Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) (2011) Global Food Losses and Food Waste − Extent, Causes, and Prevention, FAO, Rome.

Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) (2014) Food Wastage Footprint <https://www.fao.org/3/i3991e/i3991e.pdf>.

Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) (2017) The Future of Food and Agriculture – Trends and Challenges. Rome. <https://www.fao.org/3/i6583e/i6583e.pdf>.

Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), IFAD, UNICEF, WFP, and WHO (2018) The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World 2018: Building Climate Resilience for Food Security and Nutrition, FAO, Rome.

Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) (2018), Guidelines on the Measurement of Harvest and Post-Harvest Losses: Recommendations on the Design of a Harvest and Post-Harvest Loss Statistics System for Food Grains (Cereals and Pulses), GSARS, Rome, Italy.

Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) (2019), The State of Food and Agriculture 2019. Moving Forward on Food Loss and Waste Reduction, FAO, Rome.

Foresight (2011) Workshop Report W4. How can Waste Reduction Help to Healthily and Sustainably Feed a Future Global Population of Nine Billion People? Expert Forum on the Reduction of Food Waste, organised by the UK Science and Innovation Network in collaboration with Foresight, 23–24 February 2010. the Rubens Hotel, London, UK Science and Innovation with Foresight

Global Strategy to Improve Agricultural and Rural Statistics (GSARS) (2017) ‘Field test report on the estimation of crop yields and post-harvest losses in Ghana’, Global Strategy Technical Report GO-29-2017, FAO, Rome.

Grandhi, B. and Appaiah Singh, J. (2016) ‘What a waste! A study of food wastage behavior in Singapore’, Journal of Food Products Marketing 22: 471−85.

Grolleaud, M. (2002) Post-Harvest Losses: Discovering the Full Story. Overview of the Phenomenon of Losses During the Post-Harvest System. Rome (Italy). Agricultural Support Systems Div. eng.

Gustavsson, J., Cederberg, C., Sonesson, U., Otterdijk, R. and van Meybeck, A. (2011) Global Food Losses and Food Waste: Extent, Causes and Prevention, FAO, Rome.

Gustavsson, J., Bos-Brouwers, H., Timmermans, T., Hansen, O-J., Møller, H., et al.. (2014) FUSIONS Definitional Framework for Food Waste - Full Report. Project report FUSIONS. [Contract] 03072014, 2014. ffhal-02800861f

Hall, K.D., Guo, J., Dore, M. and Chow C.C. (2009) ‘The progressive increase of food waste in America and its environmental impact’, PLOS ONE 4(11):e7940.

High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition (HLPE) (2020) Food Security and Nutrition: Building a Global Narrative Towards 2030, report by the High-Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security, Rome.

Hodges, R., Buzby, J. and Bennett, B. (2011) ‘Post-harvest losses and waste in developed and less developed countries: opportunities to improve resource use’, The Journal of Agricultural Science 149(S1): 37–45, <https://doi.org/10.1017/S0021859610000936>.

Jha, S.N., Vishwakarma, R.K., Ahmad, T., Rai, A. and Dixit, K. (2015) Report on Assessmentof Quantitative Harvest and Post-Harvest Losses of Major Crops and Commodities in India, Joint Publication of ICAR and All India Coordinated Research Project on Post-Harvest Technology, Ludhiana, India.

Johnson, L.K., Dunning, R.D., Bloom, J.D., Gunter, C.C., Boyette, M.D. and Creamer, N.G. (2018) ‘Estimating on farm food loss at the field level: a methodology and applied case study on a North Carolina farm’, Resources, Conservation & Recycling137: 243–50.

Kaminski, J. and Christiaensen, L. (2014) ‘Post-harvest loss in sub-Saharan Africa – what do farmers say?’, Global Food Security 3(3): 149–58.

Katajajuuri, j.M., Silvennoinen, K., Hartikainen, H., Heikkilä, L., Reinikainen, ‘A., Food waste in the Finnish food chain’, Journal of Cleaner Production, 73: 322–9.

Kitinoja, L., Tokala, V.Y. and Brondy, A. (2018) ‘Challenges and opportunities for improved post-harvest loss measurements in plant-based food crops’, Journal of Postharvest Technology 6(4): 16–34.

Langley, J., Yoxall, A., Heppell, G., Rodriguez, E.M., Bradbury, S., Lewis, R., Luxmoore, J., Hodzic, A. and Rowson, J. (2010) ‘Food for thought? A U.K. pilot study testing a methodology for compositional domestic food waste analysis’, Waste Management and Research 28(3): 220−7.

Lebersorger S., Schneider F., ‘Food loss rates at the food retail, influencing factors and reasons as a basis for waste prevention measures’. Waste Management 34(11): 1911-9. <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2014.06.013>.

Lebersorger, S. and Schneider, F. (2011) ‘Discussion on the methodology for determining food waste in household waste composition studies’, Waste Management 31(9–10): 1924–33.

Møller, H., Vold, M., Schakenda, V., Hanssen, O.J. (2012). Mapping Method for Food Loss in the Food Processing Industry - Summary Report. Oslo, Ostfold research.

Parfitt, J., Barthel, M. and MacNaughton, S. (2010) ‘Food waste within food supply chains: quantification and potential for change to 2050’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 365(1554): 3065–81.

Parmar, A. (2018) Post-Harvest Handling Practices and Associated Food Losses in Sweetpotato and Cassava Value Chains of Southern Ethiopia, PhD Dissertation, University of Kassel, Germany <https://kobra.uni-kassel.de/bitstream/handle/123456789/2018021254576/DissertationAdityaParmar.pdf>.

Paris Agreement (2015) United Nations Paris Agreement. The Paris Agreement | United Nations [accessed on 15 August 2022].

Reardon, T., Echeverria, R., Berdegué, J., Minten, B., Liverpool-Tasie, S., Tschirley, D. and Zilberman, D. (2018) ‘Rapid transformation of food systems in developing regions: highlighting the role of agricultural research & innovation’, Agricultural Systems 172: 47–59.

Scholz, K., Eriksson, M. and Strid, I. (2015) ‘Carbon footprint of supermarket food waste’, Resources, Conservation & Recycling 94: 56−65.

Sheahan, M. and Barrett, C.B. (2017) ‘Review: food loss and waste in Sub-Saharan Africa’,Food Policy 70: 1–12.

Shee, A., Mayanja, S., Simba, E., Stathers, T., Bechoff, A. and Bennett, B. (2019) ‘Determinants of post-harvest losses along smallholder producers maise and sweetpotato value chains: an ordered probit analysis’, Food Security 11: 1101 <https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-019-00949-4>.

Spang, E.S., Moreno, L.C., Pace, S.A., Achmon, Y., Donis-Gonzalez., I. and Gosliner, W.A. (2019) ‘Food loss and waste: measurement, drivers and solutions’, Annual Review of Environment and Resources 44: 117–56.

Stancu, v., Haugaard, P., Lähteenmäki L. ‘Determinants of consumer food waste behaviour: two routes to food waste’ Appetite, 96: 7–17.

Stefan, V., Van Herpen, E., Tudoran, A.A., Lähteenmäki L., (2103) ‘Avoiding food waste by Romanian consumers: the importance of planning and shopping routines’ Food Qual. Prefer 28: 375–81.

Stenmarck, A., Jensen, C., Quested, T., Moates, G., et al.(2016) FUSIONS - Estimates of European Food Waste Levels - Full Report. Project report FUSIONS. <https://www.eu-fusions.org/phocadownload/Publications/Estimates%20of%20European%20food%20waste%20levels.pdf>.

Tesco (2018) ‘How we calculate our food waste figures (UK)’, Tesco PLC, <https://www.tescoplc.com/sustainability/downloads/how-we-calculate-our-food-waste-figures-uk/>.

United Nations (2015) ‘Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development’, A/RES/70/1 <https://sdgs.un.org/2030agenda>.

United Nations Environment Programme (2021), Food Waste Index Report 2021. Nairobi.

Van Greffen, L.E.J, van Herpen, E. and van Trijp, J.C.M. (2016) Causes & Determinants of Consumers Food Waste: A Theoretical Framework <https://eu-refresh.org/sites/default/files/Causes%20&%20Determinants%20of%20Consumers%20Food%20Waste_0.pdf>.

van Herpen, E., van der Lans, I., Nijenhuis-de Vries, M., Holthuysen, N., Kremer, S. and Stijnen, D. (2016) Consumption Life Cycle Contributions: Assessment of Practical Methodologies for In-Home Food Waste Measurement, Rep., EU Horizon 2020 REFRESH, Wageningen, NL.

Waste Reduction Action Programme (WRAP) (2012) Methods Used for Household Food and Drink Waste in the UK, Annex Rep. v2, 1–102, WRAP, Banbury.

Willett, W., Rockström, J., Loken, B., Springmann, M., Lang, T., Vermeulen, S. et al. (2019) ‘Food in the Anthropocene: the EAT–Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems’, Lancet 393(10170): 447–92.

World Resources Institute (WRI) (2016a) Food Loss + Waste: Guidance on FLW Quantification Methods, Accounting and Reporting Standard, Version 1.0, <https://flwprotocol.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/FLW_Protocol_Guidance_on_FLW_Quantification_Methods.pdf>.

World Resources Institute (WRI) (2016b) Guidance on FLW Quantification Methods: Supplement to the Food Loss and Waste (FLW) Accounting and Reporting Standard, Version 1.0, Rep. 1–90, WRI, Washington DC.

WWF-WRAP (2020) Halving Food Loss and Waste in the EU by 2030: The Major Steps Needed to Accelerate Progress, Berlin.

Xue, L., Liu, G., Parfitt, J., Liu, X., Van Herpen, E., Stenmarck, A., O’Connor, C., Östergren, K. and Cheng, S. (2017) ‘Missing food, missing data? A critical review of global food losses and food waste data’, Environmental Science & Technology, 51(12): 6618–33.