Inclusive housing programmes to stimulate the economy and improve health outcomes after COVID-19
Countries around the globe have experienced the health and economic consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic. In many countries in the Global South, interventions in the housing sector can support public and private investments and have large economic stimulus effects. This article develops a series of principles that would ensure investments in housing not only serve as economic stimuli but deliver the basis for long-term improvement in housing conditions and overall community wellbeing and health by being inclusive and sustainable. This article proposes five principles and illustrates how to apply them in core areas that would typically be included in a housing stimulus package: 1) focus on supporting housing for the underserved middle- and lower-income households; 2) inclusion of both ownership and rental markets; 3) inclusion of both formal and informal housing markets; 4) incorporating communities; and 5) avoiding long-term negative effects on housing and housing finance market development.Acolin, A. and Hoek-Smit, M.C. (2020) Cornerstone of Recovery: How housing can help emerging market economies rebound from COVID-19 [online], Habitat for Humanity: Terwilliger Center for Innovation in Shelter <https://www.habitat.org/sites/default/files/documents/Cornerstone-of-Recovery-English.pdf> [accessed 1 July 2021].
Acolin, A., Hoek-Smit, M.C. and Eloy, C.M. (2019) ‘High delinquency rates in Brazil’s Minha Casa Minha Vida housing program: possible causes and necessary reforms’, Habitat International 83: 99–110.
Adelino, M., Schoar, A. and Severino, F. (2015) ‘House prices, collateral, and self-employment’, Journal of Financial Economics 117(2): 288–306.
Altstedter, A. and Pandya, D. (2020) ‘Herd immunity may be developing in Mumbai’s poorest areas’, 29 July, Bloomberg <https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-07-29/herd-immunity-seems-to-be-developing-in-mumbai-s-poorest-areas> [accessed 30 June 2021].
Ballesteros, M.M. (2004) Rental Housing for Urban Low-Income Households in the Philippines (No. 2004-47) [online], PIDS Discussion Paper Series, Philippine Institute for Development Studies <https://pidswebs.pids.gov.ph/ris/dps/pidsdps0447.pdf> [accessed 1 July 2021].
Basile, P. and Ehlenz, M.M. (2020) ‘Examining responses to informality in the Global South: a framework for community land trusts and informal settlements’, Habitat International 96: 102108.
Bertaud, A. (2018) Order without Design: How Markets Shape Cities, MIT Press, Boston, MA.
Bonnefoy, X. (2007) ‘Inadequate housing and health: an overview’, International Journal of Environment and Pollution 30(3-4): 411–29.
Brockmeyer, A., Estefan, A., Arras, K.R. and Serrato, J.C.S. (2021) Taxing Property in Developing Countries: Theory and Evidence from Mexico (No. w28637), National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA.
Brueckner, J.K., Rabe, C. and Selod, H. (2019) ‘Backyarding: theory and evidence for South Africa’, Regional Science and Urban Economics 79: 103486.
Buckley, R.M., Kallergis, A. and Wainer, L. (2016) ‘The emergence of large-scale housing programs: beyond a public finance perspective’, Habitat International 54: 199–209.
Burns, L.S. and Grebler, L. (1976) ‘Resource allocation to housing investment: a comparative international study’, Economic Development and Cultural Change 25(1): 95–121.
Corburn, J., Vlahov, D., Mberu, B., Riley, L., Caiaffa, W.T., Rashid, S.F., Ko, A., Patel, S., Jukur, S., Martínez-Herrera, E., Jayasinghe, S., Agarwal, S., Nguendo-Yongsi, B., Weru, J., Ouma, S., Edmundo, K., Oni, T. and Ayad, H. (2020) ‘Slum health: arresting COVID-19 and improving well-being in urban informal settlements’, Journal of Urban Health 97(3): 348–57 <https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-020-00438-6>.
Dasgupta, B., Lall, S.V. and Lozano-Gracia, N. (2014) Urbanization and Housing Investment, World Bank, Washington, DC.
Davis, J.E., Algoed, L. and Hernandez-Torrales, M.E. (eds) (2020) On Common Ground: International Perspectives on the Community Land Trust [website], Terra Nostra Press, USA <https://cltweb.org/terra-nostra-press/on-common-ground> [accessed 1 July 2021].
Doshi, S., Silk, B.J., Dutt, D., Ahmed, M., Cohen, A.L., Taylor, T.H., Abdullah Brooks, W., Goswami, D., Luby, S.P., Fry, A.M. and Ram, P.K. (2015) ‘Household-level risk factors for influenza among young children in Dhaka, Bangladesh: a case–control study’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 20(6): 719–29.
Gardner, D. and Pienaar, J. (2019) Benchmarking Housing Construction Costs Across Africa [online], Centre for Affordable Housing Finance in Africa <http://housingfinanceafrica.org/app/uploads/Benchmarking-Housing-Construction-Costs-Across-Africa-FINAL-19-May-2019.pdf> [accessed 30 June 2021].
Gilbert, A. and Varley, A. (1990) ‘The Mexican landlord: rental housing in Guadalajara and Puebla’, Urban Studies 27(1): 23–44.
Hill, P.C., Jackson-Sillah, D., Donkor, S.A., Otu, J., Adegbola, R.A. and Lienhardt, C. (2006) ‘Risk factors for pulmonary tuberculosis: a clinic-based case control study in The Gambia’, BMC Public Health 6(1): 156.
Hoek-Smit, M., Kim, K.H. and Wachter, S. (2020) Cities with Affordable Housing: Fulfilling the New Urban Agenda [online], Working Paper no. 829, The Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania <https://realestate.wharton.upenn.edu/working-papers/cities-with-affordable-housing-fulfilling-the-new-urban-agenda/> [accessed 1 July 2021].
HOFINET (no date) Housing Information Network: home page [website] <http://hofinet.org/> [accessed 30 June 2021].
IMF (2020) A Crisis Like No Other, An Uncertain Recovery [online] <https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/Issues/2020/06/24/WEOUpdateJune2020> [accessed 30 June 2021].
IMF (2021a) ‘Policy responses to COVID-19’ [online] <https://www.imf.org/en/Topics/imf-and-covid19/Policy-Responses-to-COVID-19#H> [accessed 1 July 2021].
IMF (2021b) ‘World Economic Outlook update’ [online] <https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/Issues/2021/01/26/2021-world-economic-outlook-update> [accessed 1 July 2021].
Infonavit, Sedatu, and BID (2019) ‘Taller de Autoproduccion de Vivienda’, presentation at the Infonavit, BID workshop on the Home-Improvement Loan Program [online] <https://grupoenconcreto.com/infonavit-organiza-taller-de-autoproduccion-de-vivienda/> [accessed 1 July 2021].
Irfan, S.D., Faruque, M.O., Islam, M.U., Sanjoy, S.S., Afrin, D. and Hossain, A. (2017) ‘Socio-demographic determinants of adult tuberculosis: a matched case-control study in Bangladesh’, American Journal of Infectious Diseases 13(3): 32–7.
Lamson-Hall, P., Angel, S., DeGroot, D., Martin, R. and Tafesse, T. (2019) ‘A new plan for African cities: the Ethiopia urban expansion initiative’, Urban Studies 56(6): 1234–49.
Lienhardt, C., Fielding, K., Sillah, J.S., Bah, B., Gustafson, P., Warndorff, D. and Manneh, K. (2005) ‘Investigation of the risk factors for tuberculosis: a case–control study in three countries in West Africa’, International Journal of Epidemiology 34(4): 914–23.
Mayer, C.J. and Somerville, C.T. (2000) ‘Residential construction: using the urban growth model to estimate housing supply’, Journal of Urban Economics 48(1): 85–109.
McGaffin, R. (2018) Value Capture in South Africa, Urban Real Estate Research Unit, Cape Town University.
McKinsey Global Institute (2014) A Blueprint for Addressing the Global Affordable Housing Challenge [online] <https://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/McKinsey/Featured%20Insights/Urbanization/Tackling%20the%20worlds%20affordable%20housing%20challenge/MGI_Affordable_housing_Executive%20summary_October%202014.ashx> [accessed 1 July 2021].
Mian, A. and Sufi, A. (2015) House of Debt: How They (and You) Caused the Great Recession, and How We Can Prevent it from Happening Again, University of Chicago Press.
Omidyar Network and Boston Consulting Group (2020) Credit Disrupted: Digital MSME Lending in India [online] <https://omidyar.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/18-11-29_Report_Credit_Disrupted_Digital_FINAL.pdf> [accessed 1 July 2021].
Patranabis, S., Gandhi, S. and Tandel, V. (2020) ‘Are slums more vulnerable to the COVID-19 pandemic: Evidence from Mumbai’ [online], Brookings <https://www.brookings.edu/blog/up-front/2020/04/16/are-slums-more-vulnerable-to-the-covid-19-pandemic-evidence-from-mumbai/> [accessed 1 July 2021].
Pugh, C. (1994) ‘Housing policy development in developing countries: the World Bank and internationalization, 1972–1993’, Cities 11(3): 159–80.
Sampaio, A. (2020) ‘Why COVID-19 poses a particular threat in the world’s slums’ [online], World Economic Forum <https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/05/covid-19-coronavirus-slums-urban-growth-cities-pandemic-urbanization/> [accessed 1 July 2021].
Shaw, M. (2004) ‘Housing and public health’, Annual Review of Public Health 25: 397–418.
UN Habitat (2020) Metadata on SDGs Indicator 11.1.1 [online] <https://unhabitat.org/sites/default/files/2020/06/metadata_on_sdg_indicator_11.1.1.pdf> [accessed 1 July 2021].
Williamson, T. (2018) ‘Could community land trusts in informal settlements help solve the world’s affordable housing crisis?’ Land Lines 30(3): 8–23 [online] <https://www.lincolninst.edu/sites/default/files/pubfiles/land-lines-july-2018-full_2.pdf> [accessed 1 July 2021].
World Bank (2020) Public Private Partnerships for Investment and Delivery of Affordable Housing in Emerging Market Economies, Scoping Study, Global Platform for Sustainable Cities, World Bank, Washington, DC (Draft).
Acolin, A. and Hoek-Smit, M.C. (2020) Cornerstone of Recovery: How housing can help emerging market economies rebound from COVID-19 [online], Habitat for Humanity: Terwilliger Center for Innovation in Shelter <https://www.habitat.org/sites/default/files/documents/Cornerstone-of-Recovery-English.pdf> [accessed 1 July 2021].
Acolin, A., Hoek-Smit, M.C. and Eloy, C.M. (2019) ‘High delinquency rates in Brazil’s Minha Casa Minha Vida housing program: possible causes and necessary reforms’, Habitat International 83: 99–110.
Adelino, M., Schoar, A. and Severino, F. (2015) ‘House prices, collateral, and self-employment’, Journal of Financial Economics 117(2): 288–306.
Altstedter, A. and Pandya, D. (2020) ‘Herd immunity may be developing in Mumbai’s poorest areas’, 29 July, Bloomberg <https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-07-29/herd-immunity-seems-to-be-developing-in-mumbai-s-poorest-areas> [accessed 30 June 2021].
Ballesteros, M.M. (2004) Rental Housing for Urban Low-Income Households in the Philippines (No. 2004-47) [online], PIDS Discussion Paper Series, Philippine Institute for Development Studies <https://pidswebs.pids.gov.ph/ris/dps/pidsdps0447.pdf> [accessed 1 July 2021].
Basile, P. and Ehlenz, M.M. (2020) ‘Examining responses to informality in the Global South: a framework for community land trusts and informal settlements’, Habitat International 96: 102108.
Bertaud, A. (2018) Order without Design: How Markets Shape Cities, MIT Press, Boston, MA.
Bonnefoy, X. (2007) ‘Inadequate housing and health: an overview’, International Journal of Environment and Pollution 30(3-4): 411–29.
Brockmeyer, A., Estefan, A., Arras, K.R. and Serrato, J.C.S. (2021) Taxing Property in Developing Countries: Theory and Evidence from Mexico (No. w28637), National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA.
Brueckner, J.K., Rabe, C. and Selod, H. (2019) ‘Backyarding: theory and evidence for South Africa’, Regional Science and Urban Economics 79: 103486.
Buckley, R.M., Kallergis, A. and Wainer, L. (2016) ‘The emergence of large-scale housing programs: beyond a public finance perspective’, Habitat International 54: 199–209.
Burns, L.S. and Grebler, L. (1976) ‘Resource allocation to housing investment: a comparative international study’, Economic Development and Cultural Change 25(1): 95–121.
Corburn, J., Vlahov, D., Mberu, B., Riley, L., Caiaffa, W.T., Rashid, S.F., Ko, A., Patel, S., Jukur, S., Martínez-Herrera, E., Jayasinghe, S., Agarwal, S., Nguendo-Yongsi, B., Weru, J., Ouma, S., Edmundo, K., Oni, T. and Ayad, H. (2020) ‘Slum health: arresting COVID-19 and improving well-being in urban informal settlements’, Journal of Urban Health 97(3): 348–57 <https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-020-00438-6>.
Dasgupta, B., Lall, S.V. and Lozano-Gracia, N. (2014) Urbanization and Housing Investment, World Bank, Washington, DC.
Davis, J.E., Algoed, L. and Hernandez-Torrales, M.E. (eds) (2020) On Common Ground: International Perspectives on the Community Land Trust [website], Terra Nostra Press, USA <https://cltweb.org/terra-nostra-press/on-common-ground> [accessed 1 July 2021].
Doshi, S., Silk, B.J., Dutt, D., Ahmed, M., Cohen, A.L., Taylor, T.H., Abdullah Brooks, W., Goswami, D., Luby, S.P., Fry, A.M. and Ram, P.K. (2015) ‘Household-level risk factors for influenza among young children in Dhaka, Bangladesh: a case–control study’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 20(6): 719–29.
Gardner, D. and Pienaar, J. (2019) Benchmarking Housing Construction Costs Across Africa [online], Centre for Affordable Housing Finance in Africa <http://housingfinanceafrica.org/app/uploads/Benchmarking-Housing-Construction-Costs-Across-Africa-FINAL-19-May-2019.pdf> [accessed 30 June 2021].
Gilbert, A. and Varley, A. (1990) ‘The Mexican landlord: rental housing in Guadalajara and Puebla’, Urban Studies 27(1): 23–44.
Hill, P.C., Jackson-Sillah, D., Donkor, S.A., Otu, J., Adegbola, R.A. and Lienhardt, C. (2006) ‘Risk factors for pulmonary tuberculosis: a clinic-based case control study in The Gambia’, BMC Public Health 6(1): 156.
Hoek-Smit, M., Kim, K.H. and Wachter, S. (2020) Cities with Affordable Housing: Fulfilling the New Urban Agenda [online], Working Paper no. 829, The Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania <https://realestate.wharton.upenn.edu/working-papers/cities-with-affordable-housing-fulfilling-the-new-urban-agenda/> [accessed 1 July 2021].
HOFINET (no date) Housing Information Network: home page [website] <http://hofinet.org/> [accessed 30 June 2021].
IMF (2020) A Crisis Like No Other, An Uncertain Recovery [online] <https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/Issues/2020/06/24/WEOUpdateJune2020> [accessed 30 June 2021].
IMF (2021a) ‘Policy responses to COVID-19’ [online] <https://www.imf.org/en/Topics/imf-and-covid19/Policy-Responses-to-COVID-19#H> [accessed 1 July 2021].
IMF (2021b) ‘World Economic Outlook update’ [online] <https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/Issues/2021/01/26/2021-world-economic-outlook-update> [accessed 1 July 2021].
Infonavit, Sedatu, and BID (2019) ‘Taller de Autoproduccion de Vivienda’, presentation at the Infonavit, BID workshop on the Home-Improvement Loan Program [online] <https://grupoenconcreto.com/infonavit-organiza-taller-de-autoproduccion-de-vivienda/> [accessed 1 July 2021].
Irfan, S.D., Faruque, M.O., Islam, M.U., Sanjoy, S.S., Afrin, D. and Hossain, A. (2017) ‘Socio-demographic determinants of adult tuberculosis: a matched case-control study in Bangladesh’, American Journal of Infectious Diseases 13(3): 32–7.
Lamson-Hall, P., Angel, S., DeGroot, D., Martin, R. and Tafesse, T. (2019) ‘A new plan for African cities: the Ethiopia urban expansion initiative’, Urban Studies 56(6): 1234–49.
Lienhardt, C., Fielding, K., Sillah, J.S., Bah, B., Gustafson, P., Warndorff, D. and Manneh, K. (2005) ‘Investigation of the risk factors for tuberculosis: a case–control study in three countries in West Africa’, International Journal of Epidemiology 34(4): 914–23.
Mayer, C.J. and Somerville, C.T. (2000) ‘Residential construction: using the urban growth model to estimate housing supply’, Journal of Urban Economics 48(1): 85–109.
McGaffin, R. (2018) Value Capture in South Africa, Urban Real Estate Research Unit, Cape Town University.
McKinsey Global Institute (2014) A Blueprint for Addressing the Global Affordable Housing Challenge [online] <https://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/McKinsey/Featured%20Insights/Urbanization/Tackling%20the%20worlds%20affordable%20housing%20challenge/MGI_Affordable_housing_Executive%20summary_October%202014.ashx> [accessed 1 July 2021].
Mian, A. and Sufi, A. (2015) House of Debt: How They (and You) Caused the Great Recession, and How We Can Prevent it from Happening Again, University of Chicago Press.
Omidyar Network and Boston Consulting Group (2020) Credit Disrupted: Digital MSME Lending in India [online] <https://omidyar.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/18-11-29_Report_Credit_Disrupted_Digital_FINAL.pdf> [accessed 1 July 2021].
Patranabis, S., Gandhi, S. and Tandel, V. (2020) ‘Are slums more vulnerable to the COVID-19 pandemic: Evidence from Mumbai’ [online], Brookings <https://www.brookings.edu/blog/up-front/2020/04/16/are-slums-more-vulnerable-to-the-covid-19-pandemic-evidence-from-mumbai/> [accessed 1 July 2021].
Pugh, C. (1994) ‘Housing policy development in developing countries: the World Bank and internationalization, 1972–1993’, Cities 11(3): 159–80.
Sampaio, A. (2020) ‘Why COVID-19 poses a particular threat in the world’s slums’ [online], World Economic Forum <https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/05/covid-19-coronavirus-slums-urban-growth-cities-pandemic-urbanization/> [accessed 1 July 2021].
Shaw, M. (2004) ‘Housing and public health’, Annual Review of Public Health 25: 397–418.
UN Habitat (2020) Metadata on SDGs Indicator 11.1.1 [online] <https://unhabitat.org/sites/default/files/2020/06/metadata_on_sdg_indicator_11.1.1.pdf> [accessed 1 July 2021].
Williamson, T. (2018) ‘Could community land trusts in informal settlements help solve the world’s affordable housing crisis?’ Land Lines 30(3): 8–23 [online] <https://www.lincolninst.edu/sites/default/files/pubfiles/land-lines-july-2018-full_2.pdf> [accessed 1 July 2021].
World Bank (2020) Public Private Partnerships for Investment and Delivery of Affordable Housing in Emerging Market Economies, Scoping Study, Global Platform for Sustainable Cities, World Bank, Washington, DC (Draft).
Acolin, A. and Hoek-Smit, M.C. (2020) Cornerstone of Recovery: How housing can help emerging market economies rebound from COVID-19 [online], Habitat for Humanity: Terwilliger Center for Innovation in Shelter <https://www.habitat.org/sites/default/files/documents/Cornerstone-of-Recovery-English.pdf> [accessed 1 July 2021].
Acolin, A., Hoek-Smit, M.C. and Eloy, C.M. (2019) ‘High delinquency rates in Brazil’s Minha Casa Minha Vida housing program: possible causes and necessary reforms’, Habitat International 83: 99–110.
Adelino, M., Schoar, A. and Severino, F. (2015) ‘House prices, collateral, and self-employment’, Journal of Financial Economics 117(2): 288–306.
Altstedter, A. and Pandya, D. (2020) ‘Herd immunity may be developing in Mumbai’s poorest areas’, 29 July, Bloomberg <https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-07-29/herd-immunity-seems-to-be-developing-in-mumbai-s-poorest-areas> [accessed 30 June 2021].
Ballesteros, M.M. (2004) Rental Housing for Urban Low-Income Households in the Philippines (No. 2004-47) [online], PIDS Discussion Paper Series, Philippine Institute for Development Studies <https://pidswebs.pids.gov.ph/ris/dps/pidsdps0447.pdf> [accessed 1 July 2021].
Basile, P. and Ehlenz, M.M. (2020) ‘Examining responses to informality in the Global South: a framework for community land trusts and informal settlements’, Habitat International 96: 102108.
Bertaud, A. (2018) Order without Design: How Markets Shape Cities, MIT Press, Boston, MA.
Bonnefoy, X. (2007) ‘Inadequate housing and health: an overview’, International Journal of Environment and Pollution 30(3-4): 411–29.
Brockmeyer, A., Estefan, A., Arras, K.R. and Serrato, J.C.S. (2021) Taxing Property in Developing Countries: Theory and Evidence from Mexico (No. w28637), National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA.
Brueckner, J.K., Rabe, C. and Selod, H. (2019) ‘Backyarding: theory and evidence for South Africa’, Regional Science and Urban Economics 79: 103486.
Buckley, R.M., Kallergis, A. and Wainer, L. (2016) ‘The emergence of large-scale housing programs: beyond a public finance perspective’, Habitat International 54: 199–209.
Burns, L.S. and Grebler, L. (1976) ‘Resource allocation to housing investment: a comparative international study’, Economic Development and Cultural Change 25(1): 95–121.
Corburn, J., Vlahov, D., Mberu, B., Riley, L., Caiaffa, W.T., Rashid, S.F., Ko, A., Patel, S., Jukur, S., Martínez-Herrera, E., Jayasinghe, S., Agarwal, S., Nguendo-Yongsi, B., Weru, J., Ouma, S., Edmundo, K., Oni, T. and Ayad, H. (2020) ‘Slum health: arresting COVID-19 and improving well-being in urban informal settlements’, Journal of Urban Health 97(3): 348–57 <https://doi.org/10.1007/s11524-020-00438-6>.
Dasgupta, B., Lall, S.V. and Lozano-Gracia, N. (2014) Urbanization and Housing Investment, World Bank, Washington, DC.
Davis, J.E., Algoed, L. and Hernandez-Torrales, M.E. (eds) (2020) On Common Ground: International Perspectives on the Community Land Trust [website], Terra Nostra Press, USA <https://cltweb.org/terra-nostra-press/on-common-ground> [accessed 1 July 2021].
Doshi, S., Silk, B.J., Dutt, D., Ahmed, M., Cohen, A.L., Taylor, T.H., Abdullah Brooks, W., Goswami, D., Luby, S.P., Fry, A.M. and Ram, P.K. (2015) ‘Household-level risk factors for influenza among young children in Dhaka, Bangladesh: a case–control study’, Tropical Medicine & International Health 20(6): 719–29.
Gardner, D. and Pienaar, J. (2019) Benchmarking Housing Construction Costs Across Africa [online], Centre for Affordable Housing Finance in Africa <http://housingfinanceafrica.org/app/uploads/Benchmarking-Housing-Construction-Costs-Across-Africa-FINAL-19-May-2019.pdf> [accessed 30 June 2021].
Gilbert, A. and Varley, A. (1990) ‘The Mexican landlord: rental housing in Guadalajara and Puebla’, Urban Studies 27(1): 23–44.
Hill, P.C., Jackson-Sillah, D., Donkor, S.A., Otu, J., Adegbola, R.A. and Lienhardt, C. (2006) ‘Risk factors for pulmonary tuberculosis: a clinic-based case control study in The Gambia’, BMC Public Health 6(1): 156.
Hoek-Smit, M., Kim, K.H. and Wachter, S. (2020) Cities with Affordable Housing: Fulfilling the New Urban Agenda [online], Working Paper no. 829, The Wharton School, University of Pennsylvania <https://realestate.wharton.upenn.edu/working-papers/cities-with-affordable-housing-fulfilling-the-new-urban-agenda/> [accessed 1 July 2021].
HOFINET (no date) Housing Information Network: home page [website] <http://hofinet.org/> [accessed 30 June 2021].
IMF (2020) A Crisis Like No Other, An Uncertain Recovery [online] <https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/Issues/2020/06/24/WEOUpdateJune2020> [accessed 30 June 2021].
IMF (2021a) ‘Policy responses to COVID-19’ [online] <https://www.imf.org/en/Topics/imf-and-covid19/Policy-Responses-to-COVID-19#H> [accessed 1 July 2021].
IMF (2021b) ‘World Economic Outlook update’ [online] <https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/WEO/Issues/2021/01/26/2021-world-economic-outlook-update> [accessed 1 July 2021].
Infonavit, Sedatu, and BID (2019) ‘Taller de Autoproduccion de Vivienda’, presentation at the Infonavit, BID workshop on the Home-Improvement Loan Program [online] <https://grupoenconcreto.com/infonavit-organiza-taller-de-autoproduccion-de-vivienda/> [accessed 1 July 2021].
Irfan, S.D., Faruque, M.O., Islam, M.U., Sanjoy, S.S., Afrin, D. and Hossain, A. (2017) ‘Socio-demographic determinants of adult tuberculosis: a matched case-control study in Bangladesh’, American Journal of Infectious Diseases 13(3): 32–7.
Lamson-Hall, P., Angel, S., DeGroot, D., Martin, R. and Tafesse, T. (2019) ‘A new plan for African cities: the Ethiopia urban expansion initiative’, Urban Studies 56(6): 1234–49.
Lienhardt, C., Fielding, K., Sillah, J.S., Bah, B., Gustafson, P., Warndorff, D. and Manneh, K. (2005) ‘Investigation of the risk factors for tuberculosis: a case–control study in three countries in West Africa’, International Journal of Epidemiology 34(4): 914–23.
Mayer, C.J. and Somerville, C.T. (2000) ‘Residential construction: using the urban growth model to estimate housing supply’, Journal of Urban Economics 48(1): 85–109.
McGaffin, R. (2018) Value Capture in South Africa, Urban Real Estate Research Unit, Cape Town University.
McKinsey Global Institute (2014) A Blueprint for Addressing the Global Affordable Housing Challenge [online] <https://www.mckinsey.com/~/media/McKinsey/Featured%20Insights/Urbanization/Tackling%20the%20worlds%20affordable%20housing%20challenge/MGI_Affordable_housing_Executive%20summary_October%202014.ashx> [accessed 1 July 2021].
Mian, A. and Sufi, A. (2015) House of Debt: How They (and You) Caused the Great Recession, and How We Can Prevent it from Happening Again, University of Chicago Press.
Omidyar Network and Boston Consulting Group (2020) Credit Disrupted: Digital MSME Lending in India [online] <https://omidyar.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/18-11-29_Report_Credit_Disrupted_Digital_FINAL.pdf> [accessed 1 July 2021].
Patranabis, S., Gandhi, S. and Tandel, V. (2020) ‘Are slums more vulnerable to the COVID-19 pandemic: Evidence from Mumbai’ [online], Brookings <https://www.brookings.edu/blog/up-front/2020/04/16/are-slums-more-vulnerable-to-the-covid-19-pandemic-evidence-from-mumbai/> [accessed 1 July 2021].
Pugh, C. (1994) ‘Housing policy development in developing countries: the World Bank and internationalization, 1972–1993’, Cities 11(3): 159–80.
Sampaio, A. (2020) ‘Why COVID-19 poses a particular threat in the world’s slums’ [online], World Economic Forum <https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/05/covid-19-coronavirus-slums-urban-growth-cities-pandemic-urbanization/> [accessed 1 July 2021].
Shaw, M. (2004) ‘Housing and public health’, Annual Review of Public Health 25: 397–418.
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