Digital technologies range from ‘low-tech’ tools such as mobile phones and computers to more ‘high-tech’ solutions such as blockchain, Internet of Things (IoT), and artificial intelligence. Digital technologies can help smallholder farmers increase their yields and incomes if they are effectively targeted to facilitate agriculture as a ‘pathway out of poverty’. For digital agriculture to deliver on its promise, it is critical not only to design digital agriculture interventions that consider the target populations’ needs, constraints, and appropriateness, but also to ensure that digital technologies do not exacerbate social and economic inequalities. Cognizance of these risks is essential if practitioners are to ensure that digital agriculture fulfils its potential and makes significant contributions to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG). We use the example of a digital agriculture decision support tool, Rice Crop Manager (RCM), to illustrate the challenges of designing, targeting, and scaling digital tools to support rural development.

Azar, C. and Sandén, B.A. (2011) ‘The elusive quest for technology-neutral policies’, Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions 1(1): 135–9 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eist.2011.03.003>.

Banayo, N.P.M.C., Haefele, S.M., Desamero, N.V. and Kato, Y. (2018) ‘On-farm assessment of site-specific nutrient management for rainfed lowland rice in the Philippines’, Field Crops Research 220: 88–96 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2017.09.011>.

Basso, B. and Antle, J. (2020) ‘Digital agriculture to design sustainable agricultural systems’, Nature Sustainability 3(4): 254–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41893-020-0510-0>.

Baú, V. and Calandro, E. (2019) ‘Digital media and information rights’, The International Encyclopedia of Media Literacy, pp. 1–13, Wiley Online Library <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118978238.ieml0234>.

Boettiger, S. and Sanghvi, S. (2019) ‘How digital innovation is transforming agriculture: lessons from India’ [online], McKinsey & Company. Available from: https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/agriculture/our-insights/how-digital-innovation-is-transforming-agriculture-lessons-from-india [accessed 9 June 2020].

Bouton, M. (2019) ‘The digital route to transforming farm sector’, The Hindu Business Line [online]. Available from: https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/opinion/the-digital-route-to-transforming-farm-sector/article26006290.ece [accessed 9 June 2020].

Buresh, R.J., Castillo, R.L., Dela Torre, J.C., Laureles, E.V., Samson, M.I., Sinohin, P.J. and Guerra, M. (2019) ‘Site-specific nutrient management for rice in the Philippines: calculation of field-specific fertilizer requirements by Rice Crop Manager’, Field Crops Research 239(May): 56–70 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2019.05.013>.

Collins, A. (2018) ‘Saying all the right things? Gendered discourse in climate-smart agriculture’, Journal of Peasant Studies 45(1): 175–91 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2017.1377187>.

Department of Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers’ Welfare (2020) ‘Doubling of farmers’ income’ [online], Government of India. Available from: http://www.agricoop.nic.in/doubling-farmers [accessed 3 March 2020].

Dorward, A., Anderson, S., Bernal, Y.N., Sánchez, E., Rushton, J., Pattison, J. and Paz, R. (2009) ‘Hanging in, stepping up and stepping out: livelihood aspirations and strategies of the poor’, Development in Practice 19(2): 240–7 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09614520802689535>.

Douthwaite, B., Mur, R., Audouin, S., Wopereis, M., Hellin, J., Saley Moussa, A., Karbo, N., Kasten, W. and Bouyer, J. (2017) Agricultural Research for Development to Intervene Effectively in Complex Systems and the Implications for Research Organizations [pdf], KIT Working Paper 2017-12 <http://agritrop.cirad.fr/584543/1/Douthwaite_al_AR4D_Research_organizations-2017_v6.pdf> [accessed 9 June 2020].

Eriksen, S. and Brown, K. (2011) ‘Sustainable adaptation to climate change’, Climate and Development 3(1): 3–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3763/cdev.2010.0064>.

FAO and ITU (2016) The E-agriculture Strategy Guide – Piloted in Asia-Pacific Countries, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and International Telecommunication Union, Bangkok.

Faulkner, W. (2001) ‘The technology question in feminism: a view from feminist technology studies’, Women’s Studies International Forum 24(1): 79–95 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0277-5395(00)00166-7>.

Faure, G., Barret, D., Blundo-Canto, G., Dabat, M., Devaux-Spatarakis, A., Le Guerroué, J.L., Marquié, C., Mathé, S., Temple, L., Toillier, A., Triomphe, B. and Hainzelin, E. (2018) ‘How different agricultural research models contribute to impacts: evidence from 13 case studies in developing countries’, Agricultural Systems 165: 128–36 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2018.06.002>.

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (2011) The State of Food and Agriculture, 2010–11. Women in Agriculture: Closing the Gap for Development, FAO, Rome.

Gates, M.F. (2014) ‘Putting women and girls at the center of development’, Science 345(6202): 1273–5 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1258882>.

Ghins, L., Mas Aparisi, A. and Balié, J. (2017) ‘Myths and realities about input subsidies in sub-Saharan Africa’, Development Policy Review 35: O214–33 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/dpr.12258>.

Glover, D., Sumberg, J. and Andersson, J. A. (2016) ‘The adoption problem; or why we still understand so little about technological change in African agriculture’, Outlook on Agriculture 45(1): 3–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.5367/oa.2016.0235>.

Gómez, M.I., Barrett, C.B., Buck, L.E., De Groote, H., Ferris, S., Gao, H.O., McCullough, E., Miller, D.D., Outhred, H., Pell, A.N., Reardon, T., Retnanestri, M., Ruben, R., Struebi, P., Swinnen, J., Touesnard, M.A., Weinberger, K., Keatinge, J.D.H., Milstein, M.B. and Yang, R.Y. (2011) ‘Research principles for developing country food value chains’, Science 332(6034): 1154–5 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1202543>.

GSMA mWomen (2011) GSMA mWomen Programme: Policy Recommendations to Address the Mobile Phone Gender Gap, GSMA, London, UK.

Hellin, J. and Fisher, E. (2019) ‘The Achilles heel of climate-smart agriculture’, Nature Climate Change 9(7): 493–4 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41558-019-0515-8>.

International Telecommunication Union (2018) Measuring the Information Society Report, ITU, Geneva, Switzerland.

Klerkx, L., Jakku, E. and Labarthe, P. (2019) ‘A review of social science on digital agriculture, smart farming and agriculture 4.0: New contributions and a future research agenda’, NJAS – Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences 90–91: 100315 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.njas.2019.100315>.

Kos, D. and Kloppenburg, S. (2019) ‘Digital technologies, hyper-transparency and smallholder farmer inclusion in global value chains’, Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 41: 56–63 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2019.10.011>.

Krishna, V.V., Aravalath, L.M. and Vikraman, S. (2019) ‘Does caste determine farmer access to quality information?’, Plos One 14(1): e0210721 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0210721>.

Malabo Montpellier Panel (2019) Byte by Byte: Policy Innovation for Transforming Africa’s Food System with Digital Technologies, Malabo Montpellier Panel, Dakar, Senegal.

Manalo, J.A., Pasiona, S.P., Bautista, A.M.F., Villaflor, J.D., Corpuz, D.C.P. and Biag-Manalo, H.H.M. (2019) ‘Exploring youth engagement in agricultural development: the case of farmers’ children in the Philippines as rice crop manager infomediaries’, Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension 25(4): 361–77 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1389224X.2019.1629969>.

Markelova, H., Meinzen-Dick, R., Hellin, J. and Dohrn, S. (2009) ‘Collective action for smallholder market access’, Food Policy 34(1): 1–7 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2008.10.001>.

Mausch, K., Harris, D., Heather, E., Jones, E., Yim, J. and Hauser, M. (2018) ‘Households’ aspirations for rural development through agriculture’, Outlook on Agriculture 47(2): 108–15 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0030727018766940>.

Pathways for Prosperity Commission (2019) The Digital Roadmap: How Developing Countries Can Get Ahead, Final Report of the Pathways for Prosperity Commission, Oxford.

Principles for Digital Development (no date) ‘Principles for Digital Development’ [website]. Available from: https://digitalprinciples.org/ [accessed 9 June 2020].

Quisumbing, A.R., Brown, L.R., Feldstein, H.S., Haddad, L. and Peña, C. (1996) ‘Women: the key to food security’, Food and Nutrition Bulletin 17(1): 1–2 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/156482659601700116>.

Ricker-Gilbert, J., Jayne, T.S. and Chirwa, E. (2011) ‘Subsidies and crowding out: a double-hurdle model of fertilizer demand in Malawi’, American Journal of Agricultural Economics <http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajae/aaq122>.

Schut, M., Klerkx, L., Sartas, M., Lamers, D., Campbell, M.M., Ogbonna, I., Kaushik, P., Atta-Krah, K. and Leeuwis, C. (2015) ‘Innovation platforms: experiences with their institutional embedding in agricultural research for development’, Experimental Agriculture 52(4): 537–61 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S001447971500023X>.

Schwab, K. (2017) The Fourth Industrial Revolution: What It Means and How to Respond, Penguin Books, New York.

Sharma, S., Rout, K.K., Khanda, C.M., Tripathi, R., Shahid, M., Nayak, A., Satpathy, S., Banik, N.C., Iftikar, W., Parida, N., Kumar, V., Mishra, A., Castillo, R.L., Velasco, T. and Buresh, R.J. (2019) ‘Field-specific nutrient management using Rice Crop Manager decision support tool in Odisha, India’, Field Crops Research 241: 107578 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2019.107578>.

Shiferaw, B., Hellin, J. and Muricho, G. (2011) ‘Improving market access and agricultural productivity growth in Africa: what role for producer organizations and collective action institutions?’, Food Security 3(4): 475–89 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12571-011-0153-0>.

Taylor, M. and Bhasme, S. (2018) ‘Model farmers, extension networks and the politics of agricultural knowledge transfer’, Journal of Rural Studies 64: 1–10 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2018.09.015>.

Technical Centre for Agriculture and Rural Cooperation (CTA) (2019) Digitalisation of African Agriculture Report, 2018-2019, CTA, Wageningen, The Netherlands.

USAID (2019) Digital Investment Tool: An Approach to Incorporating Digital Development Best Practices in Your Activity [pdf], USAID, Washington, DC <https://digitalprinciples.org/wp-content/uploads/Digital_Investment_Review_Tool_Final_20191021-1.pdf>.

Wajcman, J. (2009) ‘Feminist theories of technology’, Cambridge Journal of Economics 34(1): 143–52 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cje/ben057>.

Woltering, L., Fehlenberg, K., Gerard, B., Ubels, J. and Cooley, L. (2019) ‘Scaling – from “reaching many” to sustainable systems change at scale: a critical shift in mindset’, Agricultural Systems 176: 102652 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2019.102652>.

Azar, C. and Sandén, B.A. (2011) ‘The elusive quest for technology-neutral policies’, Environmental Innovation and Societal Transitions 1(1): 135–9 <https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eist.2011.03.003>.

Banayo, N.P.M.C., Haefele, S.M., Desamero, N.V. and Kato, Y. (2018) ‘On-farm assessment of site-specific nutrient management for rainfed lowland rice in the Philippines’, Field Crops Research 220: 88–96 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2017.09.011>.

Basso, B. and Antle, J. (2020) ‘Digital agriculture to design sustainable agricultural systems’, Nature Sustainability 3(4): 254–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41893-020-0510-0>.

Baú, V. and Calandro, E. (2019) ‘Digital media and information rights’, The International Encyclopedia of Media Literacy, pp. 1–13, Wiley Online Library <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118978238.ieml0234>.

Boettiger, S. and Sanghvi, S. (2019) ‘How digital innovation is transforming agriculture: lessons from India’ [online], McKinsey & Company. Available from: https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/agriculture/our-insights/how-digital-innovation-is-transforming-agriculture-lessons-from-india [accessed 9 June 2020].

Bouton, M. (2019) ‘The digital route to transforming farm sector’, The Hindu Business Line [online]. Available from: https://www.thehindubusinessline.com/opinion/the-digital-route-to-transforming-farm-sector/article26006290.ece [accessed 9 June 2020].

Buresh, R.J., Castillo, R.L., Dela Torre, J.C., Laureles, E.V., Samson, M.I., Sinohin, P.J. and Guerra, M. (2019) ‘Site-specific nutrient management for rice in the Philippines: calculation of field-specific fertilizer requirements by Rice Crop Manager’, Field Crops Research 239(May): 56–70 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2019.05.013>.

Collins, A. (2018) ‘Saying all the right things? Gendered discourse in climate-smart agriculture’, Journal of Peasant Studies 45(1): 175–91 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03066150.2017.1377187>.

Department of Agriculture, Cooperation and Farmers’ Welfare (2020) ‘Doubling of farmers’ income’ [online], Government of India. Available from: http://www.agricoop.nic.in/doubling-farmers [accessed 3 March 2020].

Dorward, A., Anderson, S., Bernal, Y.N., Sánchez, E., Rushton, J., Pattison, J. and Paz, R. (2009) ‘Hanging in, stepping up and stepping out: livelihood aspirations and strategies of the poor’, Development in Practice 19(2): 240–7 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09614520802689535>.

Douthwaite, B., Mur, R., Audouin, S., Wopereis, M., Hellin, J., Saley Moussa, A., Karbo, N., Kasten, W. and Bouyer, J. (2017) Agricultural Research for Development to Intervene Effectively in Complex Systems and the Implications for Research Organizations [pdf], KIT Working Paper 2017-12 <http://agritrop.cirad.fr/584543/1/Douthwaite_al_AR4D_Research_organizations-2017_v6.pdf> [accessed 9 June 2020].

Eriksen, S. and Brown, K. (2011) ‘Sustainable adaptation to climate change’, Climate and Development 3(1): 3–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3763/cdev.2010.0064>.

FAO and ITU (2016) The E-agriculture Strategy Guide – Piloted in Asia-Pacific Countries, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and International Telecommunication Union, Bangkok.

Faulkner, W. (2001) ‘The technology question in feminism: a view from feminist technology studies’, Women’s Studies International Forum 24(1): 79–95 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0277-5395(00)00166-7>.

Faure, G., Barret, D., Blundo-Canto, G., Dabat, M., Devaux-Spatarakis, A., Le Guerroué, J.L., Marquié, C., Mathé, S., Temple, L., Toillier, A., Triomphe, B. and Hainzelin, E. (2018) ‘How different agricultural research models contribute to impacts: evidence from 13 case studies in developing countries’, Agricultural Systems 165: 128–36 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2018.06.002>.

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (2011) The State of Food and Agriculture, 2010–11. Women in Agriculture: Closing the Gap for Development, FAO, Rome.

Gates, M.F. (2014) ‘Putting women and girls at the center of development’, Science 345(6202): 1273–5 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1258882>.

Ghins, L., Mas Aparisi, A. and Balié, J. (2017) ‘Myths and realities about input subsidies in sub-Saharan Africa’, Development Policy Review 35: O214–33 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/dpr.12258>.

Glover, D., Sumberg, J. and Andersson, J. A. (2016) ‘The adoption problem; or why we still understand so little about technological change in African agriculture’, Outlook on Agriculture 45(1): 3–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.5367/oa.2016.0235>.

Gómez, M.I., Barrett, C.B., Buck, L.E., De Groote, H., Ferris, S., Gao, H.O., McCullough, E., Miller, D.D., Outhred, H., Pell, A.N., Reardon, T., Retnanestri, M., Ruben, R., Struebi, P., Swinnen, J., Touesnard, M.A., Weinberger, K., Keatinge, J.D.H., Milstein, M.B. and Yang, R.Y. (2011) ‘Research principles for developing country food value chains’, Science 332(6034): 1154–5 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1202543>.

GSMA mWomen (2011) GSMA mWomen Programme: Policy Recommendations to Address the Mobile Phone Gender Gap, GSMA, London, UK.

Hellin, J. and Fisher, E. (2019) ‘The Achilles heel of climate-smart agriculture’, Nature Climate Change 9(7): 493–4 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41558-019-0515-8>.

International Telecommunication Union (2018) Measuring the Information Society Report, ITU, Geneva, Switzerland.

Klerkx, L., Jakku, E. and Labarthe, P. (2019) ‘A review of social science on digital agriculture, smart farming and agriculture 4.0: New contributions and a future research agenda’, NJAS – Wageningen Journal of Life Sciences 90–91: 100315 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.njas.2019.100315>.

Kos, D. and Kloppenburg, S. (2019) ‘Digital technologies, hyper-transparency and smallholder farmer inclusion in global value chains’, Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 41: 56–63 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2019.10.011>.

Krishna, V.V., Aravalath, L.M. and Vikraman, S. (2019) ‘Does caste determine farmer access to quality information?’, Plos One 14(1): e0210721 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0210721>.

Malabo Montpellier Panel (2019) Byte by Byte: Policy Innovation for Transforming Africa’s Food System with Digital Technologies, Malabo Montpellier Panel, Dakar, Senegal.

Manalo, J.A., Pasiona, S.P., Bautista, A.M.F., Villaflor, J.D., Corpuz, D.C.P. and Biag-Manalo, H.H.M. (2019) ‘Exploring youth engagement in agricultural development: the case of farmers’ children in the Philippines as rice crop manager infomediaries’, Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension 25(4): 361–77 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1389224X.2019.1629969>.

Markelova, H., Meinzen-Dick, R., Hellin, J. and Dohrn, S. (2009) ‘Collective action for smallholder market access’, Food Policy 34(1): 1–7 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2008.10.001>.

Mausch, K., Harris, D., Heather, E., Jones, E., Yim, J. and Hauser, M. (2018) ‘Households’ aspirations for rural development through agriculture’, Outlook on Agriculture 47(2): 108–15 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0030727018766940>.

Pathways for Prosperity Commission (2019) The Digital Roadmap: How Developing Countries Can Get Ahead, Final Report of the Pathways for Prosperity Commission, Oxford.

Principles for Digital Development (no date) ‘Principles for Digital Development’ [website]. Available from: https://digitalprinciples.org/ [accessed 9 June 2020].

Quisumbing, A.R., Brown, L.R., Feldstein, H.S., Haddad, L. and Peña, C. (1996) ‘Women: the key to food security’, Food and Nutrition Bulletin 17(1): 1–2 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/156482659601700116>.

Ricker-Gilbert, J., Jayne, T.S. and Chirwa, E. (2011) ‘Subsidies and crowding out: a double-hurdle model of fertilizer demand in Malawi’, American Journal of Agricultural Economics <http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/ajae/aaq122>.

Schut, M., Klerkx, L., Sartas, M., Lamers, D., Campbell, M.M., Ogbonna, I., Kaushik, P., Atta-Krah, K. and Leeuwis, C. (2015) ‘Innovation platforms: experiences with their institutional embedding in agricultural research for development’, Experimental Agriculture 52(4): 537–61 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/S001447971500023X>.

Schwab, K. (2017) The Fourth Industrial Revolution: What It Means and How to Respond, Penguin Books, New York.

Sharma, S., Rout, K.K., Khanda, C.M., Tripathi, R., Shahid, M., Nayak, A., Satpathy, S., Banik, N.C., Iftikar, W., Parida, N., Kumar, V., Mishra, A., Castillo, R.L., Velasco, T. and Buresh, R.J. (2019) ‘Field-specific nutrient management using Rice Crop Manager decision support tool in Odisha, India’, Field Crops Research 241: 107578 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.fcr.2019.107578>.

Shiferaw, B., Hellin, J. and Muricho, G. (2011) ‘Improving market access and agricultural productivity growth in Africa: what role for producer organizations and collective action institutions?’, Food Security 3(4): 475–89 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12571-011-0153-0>.

Taylor, M. and Bhasme, S. (2018) ‘Model farmers, extension networks and the politics of agricultural knowledge transfer’, Journal of Rural Studies 64: 1–10 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jrurstud.2018.09.015>.

Technical Centre for Agriculture and Rural Cooperation (CTA) (2019) Digitalisation of African Agriculture Report, 2018-2019, CTA, Wageningen, The Netherlands.

USAID (2019) Digital Investment Tool: An Approach to Incorporating Digital Development Best Practices in Your Activity [pdf], USAID, Washington, DC <https://digitalprinciples.org/wp-content/uploads/Digital_Investment_Review_Tool_Final_20191021-1.pdf>.

Wajcman, J. (2009) ‘Feminist theories of technology’, Cambridge Journal of Economics 34(1): 143–52 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/cje/ben057>.

Woltering, L., Fehlenberg, K., Gerard, B., Ubels, J. and Cooley, L. (2019) ‘Scaling – from “reaching many” to sustainable systems change at scale: a critical shift in mindset’, Agricultural Systems 176: 102652 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2019.102652>.