Reliable access to clean water remains one of the key global challenges of our time. Over 10 per cent of the world’s population do not have access to clean drinking water, a figure which doubles when applied only to rural areas, more than 20 years after the end of the International Decade for Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation. This paper builds on theoretical literature examining the failure of traditional approaches to development intervention in the water sector and the potential for use of an alternative approach. This paper applies a mixed methods approach to the Making Markets Work for the Poor (M4P) diagnostic process in examining systemic constraints facing the water sector in Bugiri and Namayingo Districts of south-east Uganda. The results of a household survey, in-depth interviews, and secondary data analysis help to explain why previous models’ interventions in these areas have failed to deliver sustainable service provision. It then uses these findings to develop a model that has the potential to address constraints in such a way as to deliver lasting improvements in high-quality water services delivery. The data presented aims to add empirical weight to the theoretical case for adopting analysis-based, context-specific models of intervention, with development actors working through partners to facilitate change, rather than actively participating in a system.

Bey, V. (2014) Performance of Rural Water Service Providers and Service Authorities in Eight Districts of Uganda [pdf], Briefing Note, April 2014, Netherlands: IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre <www.ircwash.org/sites/default/files/20140509servicedeliverymodelsbriefingnotefinal_1.pdf> [accessed 20 October 2015].

Breslin, E. (2014) ‘From monitoring to action: the emergence of mobile mechanics in India’, Johns Hopkins Water Magazine, 9 November 2014 [online] <http://water.jhu.edu/index.php/magazine/the-ability-to-monitor-at-any-cost> [accessed 10 February 2016].

DFID & SDC (2008) ‘M4P and water’, in DFID & SDC (eds.), Perspectives on the Making Markets Work for the Poor (M4P) Approach, Bern, Switzerland: SDC.

Engineers Without Borders Canada Water & Sanitation Team (2014) Water and Sanitation Malawi: A Compilation of the WatSan Team’s Work 2012–2014 [pdf] <http://newsite.ewb.ca/sites/default/files/WatSan%20report%202012-2014%20%28low%20res%29.pdf> [accessed 20 October 2015].

Gero, A., Carrard, N., Murta, J. and Willetts, J. (2013) Private and Social Enterprise Engagement in Water and Sanitation for the Poor: A Systematic Review of Current Evidence, Sydney: Institute for Sustainable Futures, University of Technology, Sydney.

Improve International (2015) Aggregated statistics [online] <https://improveinternational.wordpress.com/handy-resources/sad-stats/> [accessed 20 October 2015].

Koestler, L. (2008) Private Sector Involvement in Rural Water Supply: Case Studies from Uganda, MSc thesis, WEDC, Loughborough University, UK.

Koestler, L., Koestler, A.G., Koestler, M.A. and Koestler, V.L. (2010) ‘Improving sustainability using incentives for operations and maintenance: the concept of water-person years’, Waterlines 29(2): 147–62 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2010.014>.

Lockwood, H. and Smits, S. (2011) Supporting Rural Water Supply: Moving Towards a Service Delivery Approach, Rugby: Practical Action Publishing.

Magara, P. (2014) The Paradox of Rural Water User Demand and Satisfaction: Findings from Selected Districts in Northern and Mid-Western Uganda [online], IRC Progress Report, The Hague: IRC <www.ircwash.org/resources/paradox-rural-water-user-demand-and-satisfaction> [accessed 20 October 2015].

Ministry of Water and Environment of Uganda (MWE) (2010) National Water Atlas, Kampala: Ministry of Water and Environment.

MWE (2011) National Framework for Operations & Maintenance of Rural Water Supply in Uganda, Kampala: Ministry of Water and Environment.

MWE (2013) National Water Database, Kampala: Ministry of Water and Environment.

Moriarty, P., Smits, S., Butterworth, J. and Franceys, R. (2013) ‘Trends in rural water supply: towards a service delivery approach’, Water Alternatives 6(3): 329–49 [online] <www.water-alternatives.org/index.php/alldoc/articles/vol6/v6issue3/220-a6-3-1/file> [accessed 10 February 2016].

Rural Water Supply Network (2009) Handpump Data, Selected Countries in Sub-Saharan Africa [pdf] RWSN <www.rural-water-supply.net/_ressources/documents/default/203.pdf> [accessed 20 October 2015].

SNV Netherlands Development Organisation (2012) Sustainable Water Services and the Poor in Small Towns [pdf], ESA Practice Brief Issue 3 <www.capacity.org/capacity/export/sites/capacity/documents/topic-readings/sustainable_water_services_and_the_poor_in_small_towns.pdf> [accessed 10 February 2016].

Springfield Centre (2014) The Operational Guide for the Making Markets Work for the Poor (M4P) Approach, 2nd edn, Bern, Switzerland: SDC.

Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) (2009) Promising Management Models of Rural Water Supply Services: Outcomes of the 24th AGUASAN Workshop, Gwatt, Switzerland, 13 to 17 October, 2008 [online] SDC in collaboration with Eawag/Sandec, Helvetas and Skat <www.skat.ch/publications/prarticle.2005-09-29.5069774463/prarticle.2005-09-29.1875579521/skatpublication.2009-09-30.1813961035/file> [accessed 20 October 2015].

Taylor, B. (2013) Effectiveness, Scale and Sustainability in WASH Programmes: A Review, Springfield Working Paper Series (2), Durham, UK: The Springfield Centre.

Tiwari, C. (2013) ‘Towards strengthening the gains of water sector reforms in the new dispensation’, in SNV (ed.), Annual Water Sector Conference, Nairobi, Kenya, 20–22 February 2013.

Truelove, J.A. (2013) Sustainability of Community Managed Rural Water Supply in Post-Conflict Regions of Northern Uganda, MSc thesis, Loughborough, UK: WEDC, Loughborough University.

UNICEF and WHO (2012) Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation: 2012 Update, New York: UNICEF; Geneva: WHO.

WaterAid (2011) ‘Sustainability framework’ [online] <www.wateraid.org/what-we-do/our-approach/research-and-publications/view-publication?id=0b45ec09-e7d2-43e1-9423-c00f5ff4e733> [accessed 20 October 2015].

Water and Sanitation for the Urban Poor (WSUP) (2012) Financing Water and Sanitation for the Poor [pdf], Discussion Paper Issue 3, IRC/WSUP <www.sswm.info/sites/default/files/reference_attachments/WSUP%202012%20Financing%20Water%20and%20Sanitation%20for%20the%20Poor.pdf> [accessed 20 October 2015].

Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) (2010) Private Operator Models for Community Water Supply [pdf], Rural Water Supply Series Field Note <www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/Private_OperatorModelsforCommunity_WaterSupply.pdf> [accessed 20 October 2015].

WSP (2011) Water Supply and Sanitation in Burkina Faso: Turning Finance into Services for 2015 and Beyond [pdf] Nairobi, Kenya: WSP Africa Region <www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/CSO-burkina-faso.pdf> [accessed 20 October 2015].

Whave (2013) Results-Based Financing for Safe Water Security: A Practical Example of RBF [pdf], Policy Brief Prepared for COP19, Warsaw, November 2013, Kampala: Whave <http://lifelitres.org/RBFforSafeWaterSecurity-COP19-131110.pdf> [accessed 20 October 2015].

Bey, V. (2014) Performance of Rural Water Service Providers and Service Authorities in Eight Districts of Uganda [pdf], Briefing Note, April 2014, Netherlands: IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre <www.ircwash.org/sites/default/files/20140509servicedeliverymodelsbriefingnotefinal_1.pdf> [accessed 20 October 2015].

Breslin, E. (2014) ‘From monitoring to action: the emergence of mobile mechanics in India’, Johns Hopkins Water Magazine, 9 November 2014 [online] <http://water.jhu.edu/index.php/magazine/the-ability-to-monitor-at-any-cost> [accessed 10 February 2016].

DFID & SDC (2008) ‘M4P and water’, in DFID & SDC (eds.), Perspectives on the Making Markets Work for the Poor (M4P) Approach, Bern, Switzerland: SDC.

Engineers Without Borders Canada Water & Sanitation Team (2014) Water and Sanitation Malawi: A Compilation of the WatSan Team’s Work 2012–2014 [pdf] <http://newsite.ewb.ca/sites/default/files/WatSan%20report%202012-2014%20%28low%20res%29.pdf> [accessed 20 October 2015].

Gero, A., Carrard, N., Murta, J. and Willetts, J. (2013) Private and Social Enterprise Engagement in Water and Sanitation for the Poor: A Systematic Review of Current Evidence, Sydney: Institute for Sustainable Futures, University of Technology, Sydney.

Improve International (2015) Aggregated statistics [online] <https://improveinternational.wordpress.com/handy-resources/sad-stats/> [accessed 20 October 2015].

Koestler, L. (2008) Private Sector Involvement in Rural Water Supply: Case Studies from Uganda, MSc thesis, WEDC, Loughborough University, UK.

Koestler, L., Koestler, A.G., Koestler, M.A. and Koestler, V.L. (2010) ‘Improving sustainability using incentives for operations and maintenance: the concept of water-person years’, Waterlines 29(2): 147–62 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2010.014>.

Lockwood, H. and Smits, S. (2011) Supporting Rural Water Supply: Moving Towards a Service Delivery Approach, Rugby: Practical Action Publishing.

Magara, P. (2014) The Paradox of Rural Water User Demand and Satisfaction: Findings from Selected Districts in Northern and Mid-Western Uganda [online], IRC Progress Report, The Hague: IRC <www.ircwash.org/resources/paradox-rural-water-user-demand-and-satisfaction> [accessed 20 October 2015].

Ministry of Water and Environment of Uganda (MWE) (2010) National Water Atlas, Kampala: Ministry of Water and Environment.

MWE (2011) National Framework for Operations & Maintenance of Rural Water Supply in Uganda, Kampala: Ministry of Water and Environment.

MWE (2013) National Water Database, Kampala: Ministry of Water and Environment.

Moriarty, P., Smits, S., Butterworth, J. and Franceys, R. (2013) ‘Trends in rural water supply: towards a service delivery approach’, Water Alternatives 6(3): 329–49 [online] <www.water-alternatives.org/index.php/alldoc/articles/vol6/v6issue3/220-a6-3-1/file> [accessed 10 February 2016].

Rural Water Supply Network (2009) Handpump Data, Selected Countries in Sub-Saharan Africa [pdf] RWSN <www.rural-water-supply.net/_ressources/documents/default/203.pdf> [accessed 20 October 2015].

SNV Netherlands Development Organisation (2012) Sustainable Water Services and the Poor in Small Towns [pdf], ESA Practice Brief Issue 3 <www.capacity.org/capacity/export/sites/capacity/documents/topic-readings/sustainable_water_services_and_the_poor_in_small_towns.pdf> [accessed 10 February 2016].

Springfield Centre (2014) The Operational Guide for the Making Markets Work for the Poor (M4P) Approach, 2nd edn, Bern, Switzerland: SDC.

Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) (2009) Promising Management Models of Rural Water Supply Services: Outcomes of the 24th AGUASAN Workshop, Gwatt, Switzerland, 13 to 17 October, 2008 [online] SDC in collaboration with Eawag/Sandec, Helvetas and Skat <www.skat.ch/publications/prarticle.2005-09-29.5069774463/prarticle.2005-09-29.1875579521/skatpublication.2009-09-30.1813961035/file> [accessed 20 October 2015].

Taylor, B. (2013) Effectiveness, Scale and Sustainability in WASH Programmes: A Review, Springfield Working Paper Series (2), Durham, UK: The Springfield Centre.

Tiwari, C. (2013) ‘Towards strengthening the gains of water sector reforms in the new dispensation’, in SNV (ed.), Annual Water Sector Conference, Nairobi, Kenya, 20–22 February 2013.

Truelove, J.A. (2013) Sustainability of Community Managed Rural Water Supply in Post-Conflict Regions of Northern Uganda, MSc thesis, Loughborough, UK: WEDC, Loughborough University.

UNICEF and WHO (2012) Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation: 2012 Update, New York: UNICEF; Geneva: WHO.

WaterAid (2011) ‘Sustainability framework’ [online] <www.wateraid.org/what-we-do/our-approach/research-and-publications/view-publication?id=0b45ec09-e7d2-43e1-9423-c00f5ff4e733> [accessed 20 October 2015].

Water and Sanitation for the Urban Poor (WSUP) (2012) Financing Water and Sanitation for the Poor [pdf], Discussion Paper Issue 3, IRC/WSUP <www.sswm.info/sites/default/files/reference_attachments/WSUP%202012%20Financing%20Water%20and%20Sanitation%20for%20the%20Poor.pdf> [accessed 20 October 2015].

Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) (2010) Private Operator Models for Community Water Supply [pdf], Rural Water Supply Series Field Note <www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/Private_OperatorModelsforCommunity_WaterSupply.pdf> [accessed 20 October 2015].

WSP (2011) Water Supply and Sanitation in Burkina Faso: Turning Finance into Services for 2015 and Beyond [pdf] Nairobi, Kenya: WSP Africa Region <www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/CSO-burkina-faso.pdf> [accessed 20 October 2015].

Whave (2013) Results-Based Financing for Safe Water Security: A Practical Example of RBF [pdf], Policy Brief Prepared for COP19, Warsaw, November 2013, Kampala: Whave <http://lifelitres.org/RBFforSafeWaterSecurity-COP19-131110.pdf> [accessed 20 October 2015].

Bey, V. (2014) Performance of Rural Water Service Providers and Service Authorities in Eight Districts of Uganda [pdf], Briefing Note, April 2014, Netherlands: IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre <www.ircwash.org/sites/default/files/20140509servicedeliverymodelsbriefingnotefinal_1.pdf> [accessed 20 October 2015].

Breslin, E. (2014) ‘From monitoring to action: the emergence of mobile mechanics in India’, Johns Hopkins Water Magazine, 9 November 2014 [online] <http://water.jhu.edu/index.php/magazine/the-ability-to-monitor-at-any-cost> [accessed 10 February 2016].

DFID & SDC (2008) ‘M4P and water’, in DFID & SDC (eds.), Perspectives on the Making Markets Work for the Poor (M4P) Approach, Bern, Switzerland: SDC.

Engineers Without Borders Canada Water & Sanitation Team (2014) Water and Sanitation Malawi: A Compilation of the WatSan Team’s Work 2012–2014 [pdf] <http://newsite.ewb.ca/sites/default/files/WatSan%20report%202012-2014%20%28low%20res%29.pdf> [accessed 20 October 2015].

Gero, A., Carrard, N., Murta, J. and Willetts, J. (2013) Private and Social Enterprise Engagement in Water and Sanitation for the Poor: A Systematic Review of Current Evidence, Sydney: Institute for Sustainable Futures, University of Technology, Sydney.

Improve International (2015) Aggregated statistics [online] <https://improveinternational.wordpress.com/handy-resources/sad-stats/> [accessed 20 October 2015].

Koestler, L. (2008) Private Sector Involvement in Rural Water Supply: Case Studies from Uganda, MSc thesis, WEDC, Loughborough University, UK.

Koestler, L., Koestler, A.G., Koestler, M.A. and Koestler, V.L. (2010) ‘Improving sustainability using incentives for operations and maintenance: the concept of water-person years’, Waterlines 29(2): 147–62 <http://dx.doi.org/10.3362/1756-3488.2010.014>.

Lockwood, H. and Smits, S. (2011) Supporting Rural Water Supply: Moving Towards a Service Delivery Approach, Rugby: Practical Action Publishing.

Magara, P. (2014) The Paradox of Rural Water User Demand and Satisfaction: Findings from Selected Districts in Northern and Mid-Western Uganda [online], IRC Progress Report, The Hague: IRC <www.ircwash.org/resources/paradox-rural-water-user-demand-and-satisfaction> [accessed 20 October 2015].

Ministry of Water and Environment of Uganda (MWE) (2010) National Water Atlas, Kampala: Ministry of Water and Environment.

MWE (2011) National Framework for Operations & Maintenance of Rural Water Supply in Uganda, Kampala: Ministry of Water and Environment.

MWE (2013) National Water Database, Kampala: Ministry of Water and Environment.

Moriarty, P., Smits, S., Butterworth, J. and Franceys, R. (2013) ‘Trends in rural water supply: towards a service delivery approach’, Water Alternatives 6(3): 329–49 [online] <www.water-alternatives.org/index.php/alldoc/articles/vol6/v6issue3/220-a6-3-1/file> [accessed 10 February 2016].

Rural Water Supply Network (2009) Handpump Data, Selected Countries in Sub-Saharan Africa [pdf] RWSN <www.rural-water-supply.net/_ressources/documents/default/203.pdf> [accessed 20 October 2015].

SNV Netherlands Development Organisation (2012) Sustainable Water Services and the Poor in Small Towns [pdf], ESA Practice Brief Issue 3 <www.capacity.org/capacity/export/sites/capacity/documents/topic-readings/sustainable_water_services_and_the_poor_in_small_towns.pdf> [accessed 10 February 2016].

Springfield Centre (2014) The Operational Guide for the Making Markets Work for the Poor (M4P) Approach, 2nd edn, Bern, Switzerland: SDC.

Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) (2009) Promising Management Models of Rural Water Supply Services: Outcomes of the 24th AGUASAN Workshop, Gwatt, Switzerland, 13 to 17 October, 2008 [online] SDC in collaboration with Eawag/Sandec, Helvetas and Skat <www.skat.ch/publications/prarticle.2005-09-29.5069774463/prarticle.2005-09-29.1875579521/skatpublication.2009-09-30.1813961035/file> [accessed 20 October 2015].

Taylor, B. (2013) Effectiveness, Scale and Sustainability in WASH Programmes: A Review, Springfield Working Paper Series (2), Durham, UK: The Springfield Centre.

Tiwari, C. (2013) ‘Towards strengthening the gains of water sector reforms in the new dispensation’, in SNV (ed.), Annual Water Sector Conference, Nairobi, Kenya, 20–22 February 2013.

Truelove, J.A. (2013) Sustainability of Community Managed Rural Water Supply in Post-Conflict Regions of Northern Uganda, MSc thesis, Loughborough, UK: WEDC, Loughborough University.

UNICEF and WHO (2012) Progress on Drinking Water and Sanitation: 2012 Update, New York: UNICEF; Geneva: WHO.

WaterAid (2011) ‘Sustainability framework’ [online] <www.wateraid.org/what-we-do/our-approach/research-and-publications/view-publication?id=0b45ec09-e7d2-43e1-9423-c00f5ff4e733> [accessed 20 October 2015].

Water and Sanitation for the Urban Poor (WSUP) (2012) Financing Water and Sanitation for the Poor [pdf], Discussion Paper Issue 3, IRC/WSUP <www.sswm.info/sites/default/files/reference_attachments/WSUP%202012%20Financing%20Water%20and%20Sanitation%20for%20the%20Poor.pdf> [accessed 20 October 2015].

Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) (2010) Private Operator Models for Community Water Supply [pdf], Rural Water Supply Series Field Note <www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/Private_OperatorModelsforCommunity_WaterSupply.pdf> [accessed 20 October 2015].

WSP (2011) Water Supply and Sanitation in Burkina Faso: Turning Finance into Services for 2015 and Beyond [pdf] Nairobi, Kenya: WSP Africa Region <www.wsp.org/sites/wsp.org/files/publications/CSO-burkina-faso.pdf> [accessed 20 October 2015].

Whave (2013) Results-Based Financing for Safe Water Security: A Practical Example of RBF [pdf], Policy Brief Prepared for COP19, Warsaw, November 2013, Kampala: Whave <http://lifelitres.org/RBFforSafeWaterSecurity-COP19-131110.pdf> [accessed 20 October 2015].