Fostering economic opportunities for youth in Africa: a comprehensive approach
Youth unemployment and working poverty are large and growing development challenges. The barriers faced by young women and men in accessing sustainable livelihoods are many, so supporting their successful transition into employment and entrepreneurship requires a comprehensive and holistic approach. This article reflects on the evolving approach of The MasterCard Foundation-supported programmes in sub-Saharan Africa, within the broader context of wider research and evidence. It suggests that combining training in a range of market-relevant skills, with access to job and business opportunities and appropriate financial services, can foster economic opportunities for youth. It emphasizes the importance of recognizing the role of mixed livelihoods in contexts where formal jobs are lacking, and of supporting youth engagement in agriculture and agribusiness as viable livelihood opportunities. And it highlights that the challenge can only be adequately addressed via the meaningful engagement of a range of stakeholders, including the private sector, government and civil society, and, especially, youth themselves.Adams, A.V., de Silva, S.J. and Razmara, S. (2014) Improving Skills Development in the Informal Sector: Strategies for Sub-Saharan Africa [pdf], Washington, DC: World Bank <www.skillsforemployment.org/wcmstest4/groups/skills/documents/skpcontent/ddrf/mdy3/~edisp/wcmstest4_067645.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
African Economic Outlook (AEO) (2012) ‘Promoting youth employment in Africa’ [webpage] <www.africaneconomicoutlook.org/en/theme/youth_employment/> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Banks, N. and Sulaiman, M. (2012) Problem or Promise? Harnessing Youth Potential in Uganda [pdf] BRAC Youth Watch Series <www.brac.net/sites/default/files/YW%202012.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Berckmoes, L. and White, B. (2014) ‘Youth, farming and precarity in rural Burundi’, European Journal of Development Research 26(2): 190–203 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/ejdr.2013.53>.
Bezu, S. and Holden, S. (2014) ‘Are rural youth in Ethiopia abandoning agriculture?’ World Development 64: 259–72 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2014.06.013>.
Brooks, K., Zorya, S. and Gautam, A. (2012) ‘Employment in agriculture: jobs for Africa’s youth’ [online], 2012 Global Food Policy Report, pp. 48–57, Washington, DC: IFPRI <www.ifpri.org/gfpr/2012/employment-agriculture> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Brooks, K., Zorya, S., Gautam, A. and Goyal, A. (2013) Agriculture as a Sector of Opportunity for Young People in Africa [pdf], Policy Research Working Paper 6473, Washington, DC: World Bank <http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/pdf/10.1596/1813-9450-6473> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Dalberg Global Development Advisors, The MasterCard Foundation and Save The Children (2013) Summary Report of Findings, Lessons Learned and Recommendations: Multi-Country Assessment of Youth Employment and Entrepreneurship Opportunities in Agriculture – Burkina Faso, Egypt, Ethiopia, Malawi, Uganda [pdf] Save the Children/The MasterCard Foundation <http://youthinaction.savethechildren.ca/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/STC_Report_EN.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Demirgüç-Kunt, A. and Klapper, L. (2012) Measuring Financial Inclusion: The Global Findex Database [pdf], Policy Research Working Paper 6025, Washington, DC: World Bank <http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/pdf/10.1596/1813-9450-6025> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Demirgüç-Kunt, A., Klapper, L., Kumar, A. and Randall, D. (2013) ‘The Global Findex database: financial inclusion of youth’ [webpage], Findex notes no. 10, Washington, DC: World Bank <http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2013/10/18477405/global-findex-database-financial-inclusion-youth> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Dueck-Mbeba, R. (2015) ‘What happens when youth save together?’ [blog], Toronto: The MasterCard Foundation <www.mastercardfdn.org/what-happens-when-youth-save-together> [accessed 11 March 2015].
Elder, S. and Koné, K.S. (2014) Labour Market Transitions of Young Women and Men in Sub-Saharan Africa [pdf], Work4Youth Publication Series No. 9, Geneva: ILO <www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/documents/publication/wcms_235754.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
FAO, CTA and IFAD (2014) Youth and Agriculture: Key Challenges and Concrete Solutions [pdf] Rome: FAO <www.fao.org/3/a-i3947e.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Fox, L. and Sohnesen, T.P. (2012) Household Enterprises in Sub-Saharan Africa: Why They Matter for Growth, Jobs, and Livelihoods [pdf], Policy Research Working Paper 6184, Washington, DC: World Bank <http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/pdf/10.1596/1813-9450-6184> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Guarcello, L., Manacorda, M., Rosati, F., Fares, J., Lyon, S. and Valdivia, C. (2007) ‘School-to-work transitions in sub-Saharan Africa: an overview’, in M. Garcia and J. Fares (eds), Youth in Africa’s Labor Market, Directions in Development, Washington, DC: World Bank.
Hartley, S. (2014) ‘Collective learning in youth-focused co-operatives in Lesotho and Uganda’, Journal of International Development 26(5): 713–30 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jid.3000>.
International Labour Organization (ILO) (2013) Global Employment Trends for Youth 2013: A Generation at Risk [online], Geneva: ILO <www.ilo.org/global/research/global-reports/global-employment-trends/youth/2013/lang--en/index.htm> [accessed 20 January 2015].
ILO (2014) ‘Global employment trends 2014: the risk of a jobless recovery’ [online], Geneva: ILO <www.ilo.org/global/research/global-reports/global-employment-trends/2014/WCMS_233953/lang--en/index.htm> [accessed 20 January 2015].
INSTAT (2014) Enquête sur la transition des jeunes vers la vie active – ETVA Madagascar 2013 [pdf], INSTAT/ILO: Antananarivo <www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/documents/publication/wcms_244496.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Jones, N., Harper, C., Watson, C., Espey, J., Wadugodapitiya, D., Page, E., Stavropoulou, M., Presler-Marshall, E. and Clench, B. (2010) Stemming Girls’ Chronic Poverty: Catalysing Development Change by Building Just Social Institutions [pdf], London: Chronic Poverty Research Centre <www.chronicpoverty.org/uploads/assets/files/reports/Full_report.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Koira, A.K. (2014) Agribusiness in Sub-Saharan Africa: Pathways for Developing Innovative Programs for Youth and the Rural Poor [pdf] The MasterCard Foundation <www.mastercardfdn.org/download/agribusiness-in-sub-saharan-africa> [accessed 11 March 2015].
Leavy, J. and Smith, S. (2010) Future Farmers? Exploring Youth Aspirations for African Agriculture [online], Future Agricultures Consortium Policy Brief 037, <www.future-agricultures.org/publications/research-and-analysis/945-future-farmers-exploring-youth-aspirations-for-african-agriculture/file> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Markel, E. and Panetta, D. (2014) Youth Savings Groups, Entrepreneurship and Employment [online], Plan UK: London <www.plan-uk.org/resources/documents/494816/> [accessed 20 January 2015].
MasterCard Foundation (2013) 2013–2014 Youth Think Tank Initiative – Final Report: March 2013 [pdf], Toronto: The MasterCard Foundation <www.mastercardfdn.org/wp-content/uploads/Youth-Think-Tank-Final-Report-June-2013.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
MasterCard Foundation (2014) 2013–2014 Youth Think Tank Report: Engaging Young People [pdf], Toronto: The MasterCard Foundation <www.mastercardfdn.org/ytt2014> [accessed 20 January 2015].
MasterCard Foundation (2015a) Financial Services for Young People: Prospects and Challenges, Toronto: The MasterCard Foundation.
MasterCard Foundation (2015b) Youth at Work: Building Economic Opportunities for Young People in Africa. Thematic Review, Toronto: The MasterCard Foundation.
Moore, K. (2005) ‘Chronic, life-course and intergenerational poverty’, in World Youth Report 2005: Young People Today and in 2015 [pdf], New York: United Nations Program on Youth, pp. 42–65 <www.un.org/esa/socdev/unyin/documents/wyr05book.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Murray, C. (2001) Livelihoods Research: Some Conceptual and Methodological Issues [pdf], Background Paper 5, Manchester: Chronic Poverty Research Centre <www.chronicpoverty.org/uploads/publication_files/WP05_Murray.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Musa, A.S.M. with Hasan, E. and Lam, B. (2014) Counting Change: How Youth Manage their Money [pdf], Toronto: Plan Canada <http://plancanada.ca/downloads/mcf/CountingChange_PlanCanada2014.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Nayar, N. (2014) An Integrated Approach to Empower Youth in Niger, Senegal and Sierra Leone: Findings and Lessons from the Youth Microfinance Project [pdf], Toronto: Plan Canada <http://plancanada.ca/downloads/mcf/Plan%20Canada_EmpoweringYouth_FINAL.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Noorani, M. (2015) To Farm or Not to Farm? Rural Youth Perceptions of Farming and their Decision of Whether or Not to Work as a Farmer: A Case Study of Rural Youth in Kiambu County, Kenya [pdf], MA thesis, University of Ottawa, Canada <https://www.ruor.uottawa.ca/bitstream/10393/31960/1/Noorani_Mohamed_2015_thesis.pdf> [accessed 11 March 2015].
Ramirez, R. and Fleischer-Proaño, L. (2013) Saving Together: Group-Based Approaches to Promote Youth Savings [pdf], Davis, CA: Freedom from Hunger <https://www.freedomfromhunger.org/sites/default/files/SavingTogether_Eng_Web.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Shehu, E. and Nilsson, B. (2014) Informal Employment Among Youth: Evidence from 20 School-to-Work Transition Surveys [pdf], Work4Youth Publication Series No. 8, Geneva: ILO <www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/documents/publication/wcms_234911.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Shepherd, A. with Scott, L. and CPRC (2011) Tackling Chronic Poverty: The Policy Implications of Research on Chronic Poverty and Poverty Dynamics [online], London: Chronic Poverty Research Centre <www.chronicpoverty.org/publications/details/tackling-chronic-poverty1> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Sparreboom, T. and Staneva, A. (2014) Is Education the Solution to Decent Work for Youth in Developing Economies? Identifying Qualifications Mismatch from 28 School-to-Work Transition Surveys [pdf], Work4Youth Publication Series No. 23, Geneva: ILO <www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/documents/publication/wcms_326260.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Sumberg, J. and Okali, C. (2013) ‘Young people, agriculture, and transformation in rural Africa: an “opportunity space” approach’, Innovations: Technology, Governance, Globalization 8(1–2): 259–69 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/INOV_a_00178>.
UNESCO (2012) Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2012 – Youth and Skills: Putting Education to Work [pdf], Paris: UNESCO <http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002180/218003e.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
UNESCO (2013) Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2013/4 – Teaching and Learning: Achieving Quality for All [pdf], Paris: UNESCO <http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002256/225660e.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
UNICEF (2003) ‘Life skills: definition of terms’ [webpage], UNICEF <www.unicef.org/lifeskills/index_7308.html> [accessed 20 January 2015].
University of Minnesota (2014a) ‘The MasterCard Foundation Learn Earn and Save Initiative – longitudinal evaluation of year 3: cross-program report’, Toronto: The MasterCard Foundation (unpublished).
University of Minnesota (2014b) ‘The MasterCard Foundation Learn Earn and Save Initiative – year 3 synthesis report for Fundación Paraguaya’, Toronto: The MasterCard Foundation (unpublished).
UNPD (Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat) (2012) World Population Prospects: The 2012 Revision [webpage], <http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/index.htm> [accessed 20 January 2015].
USAID (2008) Youth Livelihoods Development Program Guide [pdf], Washington, DC: USAID <www.equip123.net/docs/e3-LivelihoodsGuide.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
USAID (2013) State of the Field Report: Examining the Evidence in Youth Workforce Development – USAID Youth Research, Evaluation, and Learning Project [pdf], Washington, DC: USAID <www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1865/USAID%20state%20of%20the%20field%20youth%20workforce%20development%20final%202_11.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
World Bank (2013) World Development Report 2013: Jobs [online], Washington, DC: World Bank <http://econ.worldbank.org/external/default/main?contentMDK=23044836&theSitePK=8258025&piPK=8258412&pagePK=8258258> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Adams, A.V., de Silva, S.J. and Razmara, S. (2014) Improving Skills Development in the Informal Sector: Strategies for Sub-Saharan Africa [pdf], Washington, DC: World Bank <www.skillsforemployment.org/wcmstest4/groups/skills/documents/skpcontent/ddrf/mdy3/~edisp/wcmstest4_067645.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
African Economic Outlook (AEO) (2012) ‘Promoting youth employment in Africa’ [webpage] <www.africaneconomicoutlook.org/en/theme/youth_employment/> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Banks, N. and Sulaiman, M. (2012) Problem or Promise? Harnessing Youth Potential in Uganda [pdf] BRAC Youth Watch Series <www.brac.net/sites/default/files/YW%202012.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Berckmoes, L. and White, B. (2014) ‘Youth, farming and precarity in rural Burundi’, European Journal of Development Research 26(2): 190–203 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/ejdr.2013.53>.
Bezu, S. and Holden, S. (2014) ‘Are rural youth in Ethiopia abandoning agriculture?’ World Development 64: 259–72 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2014.06.013>.
Brooks, K., Zorya, S. and Gautam, A. (2012) ‘Employment in agriculture: jobs for Africa’s youth’ [online], 2012 Global Food Policy Report, pp. 48–57, Washington, DC: IFPRI <www.ifpri.org/gfpr/2012/employment-agriculture> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Brooks, K., Zorya, S., Gautam, A. and Goyal, A. (2013) Agriculture as a Sector of Opportunity for Young People in Africa [pdf], Policy Research Working Paper 6473, Washington, DC: World Bank <http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/pdf/10.1596/1813-9450-6473> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Dalberg Global Development Advisors, The MasterCard Foundation and Save The Children (2013) Summary Report of Findings, Lessons Learned and Recommendations: Multi-Country Assessment of Youth Employment and Entrepreneurship Opportunities in Agriculture – Burkina Faso, Egypt, Ethiopia, Malawi, Uganda [pdf] Save the Children/The MasterCard Foundation <http://youthinaction.savethechildren.ca/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/STC_Report_EN.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Demirgüç-Kunt, A. and Klapper, L. (2012) Measuring Financial Inclusion: The Global Findex Database [pdf], Policy Research Working Paper 6025, Washington, DC: World Bank <http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/pdf/10.1596/1813-9450-6025> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Demirgüç-Kunt, A., Klapper, L., Kumar, A. and Randall, D. (2013) ‘The Global Findex database: financial inclusion of youth’ [webpage], Findex notes no. 10, Washington, DC: World Bank <http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2013/10/18477405/global-findex-database-financial-inclusion-youth> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Dueck-Mbeba, R. (2015) ‘What happens when youth save together?’ [blog], Toronto: The MasterCard Foundation <www.mastercardfdn.org/what-happens-when-youth-save-together> [accessed 11 March 2015].
Elder, S. and Koné, K.S. (2014) Labour Market Transitions of Young Women and Men in Sub-Saharan Africa [pdf], Work4Youth Publication Series No. 9, Geneva: ILO <www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/documents/publication/wcms_235754.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
FAO, CTA and IFAD (2014) Youth and Agriculture: Key Challenges and Concrete Solutions [pdf] Rome: FAO <www.fao.org/3/a-i3947e.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Fox, L. and Sohnesen, T.P. (2012) Household Enterprises in Sub-Saharan Africa: Why They Matter for Growth, Jobs, and Livelihoods [pdf], Policy Research Working Paper 6184, Washington, DC: World Bank <http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/pdf/10.1596/1813-9450-6184> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Guarcello, L., Manacorda, M., Rosati, F., Fares, J., Lyon, S. and Valdivia, C. (2007) ‘School-to-work transitions in sub-Saharan Africa: an overview’, in M. Garcia and J. Fares (eds), Youth in Africa’s Labor Market, Directions in Development, Washington, DC: World Bank.
Hartley, S. (2014) ‘Collective learning in youth-focused co-operatives in Lesotho and Uganda’, Journal of International Development 26(5): 713–30 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jid.3000>.
International Labour Organization (ILO) (2013) Global Employment Trends for Youth 2013: A Generation at Risk [online], Geneva: ILO <www.ilo.org/global/research/global-reports/global-employment-trends/youth/2013/lang--en/index.htm> [accessed 20 January 2015].
ILO (2014) ‘Global employment trends 2014: the risk of a jobless recovery’ [online], Geneva: ILO <www.ilo.org/global/research/global-reports/global-employment-trends/2014/WCMS_233953/lang--en/index.htm> [accessed 20 January 2015].
INSTAT (2014) Enquête sur la transition des jeunes vers la vie active – ETVA Madagascar 2013 [pdf], INSTAT/ILO: Antananarivo <www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/documents/publication/wcms_244496.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Jones, N., Harper, C., Watson, C., Espey, J., Wadugodapitiya, D., Page, E., Stavropoulou, M., Presler-Marshall, E. and Clench, B. (2010) Stemming Girls’ Chronic Poverty: Catalysing Development Change by Building Just Social Institutions [pdf], London: Chronic Poverty Research Centre <www.chronicpoverty.org/uploads/assets/files/reports/Full_report.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Koira, A.K. (2014) Agribusiness in Sub-Saharan Africa: Pathways for Developing Innovative Programs for Youth and the Rural Poor [pdf] The MasterCard Foundation <www.mastercardfdn.org/download/agribusiness-in-sub-saharan-africa> [accessed 11 March 2015].
Leavy, J. and Smith, S. (2010) Future Farmers? Exploring Youth Aspirations for African Agriculture [online], Future Agricultures Consortium Policy Brief 037, <www.future-agricultures.org/publications/research-and-analysis/945-future-farmers-exploring-youth-aspirations-for-african-agriculture/file> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Markel, E. and Panetta, D. (2014) Youth Savings Groups, Entrepreneurship and Employment [online], Plan UK: London <www.plan-uk.org/resources/documents/494816/> [accessed 20 January 2015].
MasterCard Foundation (2013) 2013–2014 Youth Think Tank Initiative – Final Report: March 2013 [pdf], Toronto: The MasterCard Foundation <www.mastercardfdn.org/wp-content/uploads/Youth-Think-Tank-Final-Report-June-2013.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
MasterCard Foundation (2014) 2013–2014 Youth Think Tank Report: Engaging Young People [pdf], Toronto: The MasterCard Foundation <www.mastercardfdn.org/ytt2014> [accessed 20 January 2015].
MasterCard Foundation (2015a) Financial Services for Young People: Prospects and Challenges, Toronto: The MasterCard Foundation.
MasterCard Foundation (2015b) Youth at Work: Building Economic Opportunities for Young People in Africa. Thematic Review, Toronto: The MasterCard Foundation.
Moore, K. (2005) ‘Chronic, life-course and intergenerational poverty’, in World Youth Report 2005: Young People Today and in 2015 [pdf], New York: United Nations Program on Youth, pp. 42–65 <www.un.org/esa/socdev/unyin/documents/wyr05book.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Murray, C. (2001) Livelihoods Research: Some Conceptual and Methodological Issues [pdf], Background Paper 5, Manchester: Chronic Poverty Research Centre <www.chronicpoverty.org/uploads/publication_files/WP05_Murray.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Musa, A.S.M. with Hasan, E. and Lam, B. (2014) Counting Change: How Youth Manage their Money [pdf], Toronto: Plan Canada <http://plancanada.ca/downloads/mcf/CountingChange_PlanCanada2014.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Nayar, N. (2014) An Integrated Approach to Empower Youth in Niger, Senegal and Sierra Leone: Findings and Lessons from the Youth Microfinance Project [pdf], Toronto: Plan Canada <http://plancanada.ca/downloads/mcf/Plan%20Canada_EmpoweringYouth_FINAL.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Noorani, M. (2015) To Farm or Not to Farm? Rural Youth Perceptions of Farming and their Decision of Whether or Not to Work as a Farmer: A Case Study of Rural Youth in Kiambu County, Kenya [pdf], MA thesis, University of Ottawa, Canada <https://www.ruor.uottawa.ca/bitstream/10393/31960/1/Noorani_Mohamed_2015_thesis.pdf> [accessed 11 March 2015].
Ramirez, R. and Fleischer-Proaño, L. (2013) Saving Together: Group-Based Approaches to Promote Youth Savings [pdf], Davis, CA: Freedom from Hunger <https://www.freedomfromhunger.org/sites/default/files/SavingTogether_Eng_Web.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Shehu, E. and Nilsson, B. (2014) Informal Employment Among Youth: Evidence from 20 School-to-Work Transition Surveys [pdf], Work4Youth Publication Series No. 8, Geneva: ILO <www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/documents/publication/wcms_234911.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Shepherd, A. with Scott, L. and CPRC (2011) Tackling Chronic Poverty: The Policy Implications of Research on Chronic Poverty and Poverty Dynamics [online], London: Chronic Poverty Research Centre <www.chronicpoverty.org/publications/details/tackling-chronic-poverty1> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Sparreboom, T. and Staneva, A. (2014) Is Education the Solution to Decent Work for Youth in Developing Economies? Identifying Qualifications Mismatch from 28 School-to-Work Transition Surveys [pdf], Work4Youth Publication Series No. 23, Geneva: ILO <www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---dcomm/documents/publication/wcms_326260.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Sumberg, J. and Okali, C. (2013) ‘Young people, agriculture, and transformation in rural Africa: an “opportunity space” approach’, Innovations: Technology, Governance, Globalization 8(1–2): 259–69 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1162/INOV_a_00178>.
UNESCO (2012) Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2012 – Youth and Skills: Putting Education to Work [pdf], Paris: UNESCO <http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0021/002180/218003e.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
UNESCO (2013) Education for All Global Monitoring Report 2013/4 – Teaching and Learning: Achieving Quality for All [pdf], Paris: UNESCO <http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0022/002256/225660e.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
UNICEF (2003) ‘Life skills: definition of terms’ [webpage], UNICEF <www.unicef.org/lifeskills/index_7308.html> [accessed 20 January 2015].
University of Minnesota (2014a) ‘The MasterCard Foundation Learn Earn and Save Initiative – longitudinal evaluation of year 3: cross-program report’, Toronto: The MasterCard Foundation (unpublished).
University of Minnesota (2014b) ‘The MasterCard Foundation Learn Earn and Save Initiative – year 3 synthesis report for Fundación Paraguaya’, Toronto: The MasterCard Foundation (unpublished).
UNPD (Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat) (2012) World Population Prospects: The 2012 Revision [webpage], <http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/index.htm> [accessed 20 January 2015].
USAID (2008) Youth Livelihoods Development Program Guide [pdf], Washington, DC: USAID <www.equip123.net/docs/e3-LivelihoodsGuide.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
USAID (2013) State of the Field Report: Examining the Evidence in Youth Workforce Development – USAID Youth Research, Evaluation, and Learning Project [pdf], Washington, DC: USAID <www.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1865/USAID%20state%20of%20the%20field%20youth%20workforce%20development%20final%202_11.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
World Bank (2013) World Development Report 2013: Jobs [online], Washington, DC: World Bank <http://econ.worldbank.org/external/default/main?contentMDK=23044836&theSitePK=8258025&piPK=8258412&pagePK=8258258> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Adams, A.V., de Silva, S.J. and Razmara, S. (2014) Improving Skills Development in the Informal Sector: Strategies for Sub-Saharan Africa [pdf], Washington, DC: World Bank <www.skillsforemployment.org/wcmstest4/groups/skills/documents/skpcontent/ddrf/mdy3/~edisp/wcmstest4_067645.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
African Economic Outlook (AEO) (2012) ‘Promoting youth employment in Africa’ [webpage] <www.africaneconomicoutlook.org/en/theme/youth_employment/> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Banks, N. and Sulaiman, M. (2012) Problem or Promise? Harnessing Youth Potential in Uganda [pdf] BRAC Youth Watch Series <www.brac.net/sites/default/files/YW%202012.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Berckmoes, L. and White, B. (2014) ‘Youth, farming and precarity in rural Burundi’, European Journal of Development Research 26(2): 190–203 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1057/ejdr.2013.53>.
Bezu, S. and Holden, S. (2014) ‘Are rural youth in Ethiopia abandoning agriculture?’ World Development 64: 259–72 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2014.06.013>.
Brooks, K., Zorya, S. and Gautam, A. (2012) ‘Employment in agriculture: jobs for Africa’s youth’ [online], 2012 Global Food Policy Report, pp. 48–57, Washington, DC: IFPRI <www.ifpri.org/gfpr/2012/employment-agriculture> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Brooks, K., Zorya, S., Gautam, A. and Goyal, A. (2013) Agriculture as a Sector of Opportunity for Young People in Africa [pdf], Policy Research Working Paper 6473, Washington, DC: World Bank <http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/pdf/10.1596/1813-9450-6473> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Dalberg Global Development Advisors, The MasterCard Foundation and Save The Children (2013) Summary Report of Findings, Lessons Learned and Recommendations: Multi-Country Assessment of Youth Employment and Entrepreneurship Opportunities in Agriculture – Burkina Faso, Egypt, Ethiopia, Malawi, Uganda [pdf] Save the Children/The MasterCard Foundation <http://youthinaction.savethechildren.ca/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/STC_Report_EN.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Demirgüç-Kunt, A. and Klapper, L. (2012) Measuring Financial Inclusion: The Global Findex Database [pdf], Policy Research Working Paper 6025, Washington, DC: World Bank <http://elibrary.worldbank.org/doi/pdf/10.1596/1813-9450-6025> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Demirgüç-Kunt, A., Klapper, L., Kumar, A. and Randall, D. (2013) ‘The Global Findex database: financial inclusion of youth’ [webpage], Findex notes no. 10, Washington, DC: World Bank <http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2013/10/18477405/global-findex-database-financial-inclusion-youth> [accessed 20 January 2015].
Dueck-Mbeba, R. (2015) ‘What happens when youth save together?’ [blog], Toronto: The MasterCard Foundation <www.mastercardfdn.org/what-happens-when-youth-save-together> [accessed 11 March 2015].
Elder, S. and Koné, K.S. (2014) Labour Market Transitions of Young Women and Men in Sub-Saharan Africa [pdf], Work4Youth Publication Series No. 9, Geneva: ILO <www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---ed_emp/documents/publication/wcms_235754.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
FAO, CTA and IFAD (2014) Youth and Agriculture: Key Challenges and Concrete Solutions [pdf] Rome: FAO <www.fao.org/3/a-i3947e.pdf> [accessed 20 January 2015].
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