Does wealth increase affect school enrolment in ultra-poor households: evidence from an experiment in Bangladesh
Access to education is usually found to be highly correlated with household income and wealth. This correlation often instigates an expectation that increasing income of the poor households will lead to greater human capital accumulation. This paper exploits randomized roll-out of a large-scale livelihood development programme for the ultra-poor in Bangladesh to measure the effect of asset transfer and livelihood supports on children’s schooling. We find limited impact on enrolment although this programme has been extremely successful in transforming the economic lives of the ultra-poor and causing substantial increases in their income and productive assets. The beneficiary households are also found to have increased their expenditures on education. This increase in educational investment, however, has not affected educational attainment during the evaluation period. We also find that the programme increased the extent of child labour immediately after asset transfers. The level of this impact on children’s work declines two years after the interventions ended. The increases in child labour are concentrated in activities related to livestock rearing, which is the primary type of asset transferred in this programme. However, we do not find evidence indicating a trade-off between children’s enrolment and work. The evidence suggests that asset transfer programmes can be more effective by including additional components focusing on improvement in educational outcomes instead of relying primarily on spillover effects through income gain.Ahmed, A.U., Rabbani, M., Sulaiman, M. and Das, N. (2009) The Impact of Asset Transfer on Livelihoods of the Ultra Poor in Bangladesh, Research Monograph Series no. 39, Dhaka: Research and Evaluation Division, BRAC.
Amin, S., Quayes, M.S. and Rives, J.M. (2004) ‘Poverty and other determinants of child labor in Bangladesh’, Southern Economic Journal 70(4): 876–92.
Attanasio, O., Emla, F., Ana, G., Diana, L., Costas, M. and Alice, M. (2006) Child Education and Work Choices in the Presence of a Conditional Cash Transfer Programme in Rural Colombia, Working Paper No. 06/13, London: Institute for Fiscal Studies (IFS).
Baird, S., McIntosh, C. and Ozler, B. (2011) ‘Cash or condition? Evidence from a cash transfer experiment’, Quarterly Journal of Economics 126: 1709–53 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjr032>.
Banerjee. A., Duflo, E., Goldberge, N., Karlan, D., Osei, R., Pariente, W., Shapiro, J., Thuysbaert, B. and Udry, C. (2015) ‘A multi-faceted livelihood program leads to sustained improvements in the lives of the poorest of the poor: Evidence from randomized controlled trials in six countries’, Science, 348(6236): 1–16 <dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1260799>.
Bandiera, O., Burgess, R., Gulesci, S., Rasult, I. and Sulaiman, M. (2013) Can Entrepreneurship Programs Transform the Economic Lives of the Poor? Economic Organisation and Public Policy Discussion Papers, EOPP 043, London: London School of Economics.
Barham, V., Boadway, R., Marchand, M. and Pestieau, P. (1995) ‘Education and the poverty trap’, European Economic Review 39(7): 1257–75 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0014-2921(94)00040-7>.
Barham, T., Macrous, K. and Maluccio, J.A. (2013) More Schooling and More Learning? Effects of a Three-Year Conditional Cash Transfer Program in Nicaragua after 10 Years, Working paper no. 432, Washington, DC: Inter-American Development Bank.
Chadwick, L. and Solon, G. (2002) ‘Intergenerational income mobility among daughters’, American Economic Review 92(1): 335–44 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/000282802760015766>.
Cockburn, J. and Dostie, B. (2007) ‘Child work and schooling: the role of household asset profile and poverty in Ethiopia’, Journal of African Economies 16(4): 519–63 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jae/ejl045>.
de Brauw, A. and Hoddinott, J. (2011) ‘Must conditional cash transfer programs be conditioned to be effective? The impact of conditioning transfers on school enrolment in Mexico’, Journal of Development Economics 96(2): 359–70. <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2010.08.014>.
Emran, M.S., Robano, V. and Smith, S.C. (2014) ‘Assessing the frontier of ultra-poverty reduction: Evidence from CFPR/TUP, an innovative program in Bangladesh’, Economic Development and Cultural Change 62(2): 339–80 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/674110>.
Garcia, S. and Hill, J. (2010) ‘Impact of conditional cash transfers on children’s school achievement: evidence from Colombia’, Journal of Development Effectiveness 2(1): 117–37 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19439341003628681>.
Glewwe, P. and Jacoby, H.G. (2004) ‘Economic growth and the demand for education: Is there a wealth effect?’ Journal of Development Economics 74 (1): 33–51 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2003.12.003>.
Grimm, M. (2011) ‘Does household income matter for children’s schooling? Evidence for rural sub-Saharan Africa’, Economics of Education Review 30(4): 740–54 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2011.03.002>.
Imbens, G.W. and Wooldridge, J.M. (2009) ‘Recent developments in the econometrics of program evaluation’, Journal of Economic Literature 47(1): 5–86 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/jel.47.1.5>.
Levine, D.I. and Jellema, J.R. (2007) ‘Growth, industrialization, and the intergenerational correlation of advantage’, Industrial Relations 46(1): 130–70.
Maitra, P. (2003) ‘Schooling and educational attainment: evidence from Bangladesh’, Education Economics 11(2): 129–53 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09645290210131665>.
Matin, I., Sulaiman, M. and Rabbani, M. (2008) Crafting a Graduation Pathway for the Ultra Poor: Lessons and Evidence from a BRAC Programme, Working Paper no. 109, Manchester: Chronic Poverty Research Centre.
Nath, S. R. (2008) ‘Private supplementary tutoring among primary students in Bangladesh’, Educational Studies 34(1): 55–72 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03055690701785285>.
Rabbani, M., Prakash, V.A. and Sulaiman, M. (2006) Impact Assessment of CFPR/TUP: A Descriptive Analysis Based on 2002–2005 Panel Data, CFPR/TUP working paper no. 13, Dhaka: BRAC.
Ravallion, M. and Wodon, Q. (2000) ‘Does child labor displace schooling? Evidence from behavioral responses to an enrollment subsidy’, Economic Journal 110(462): 158–75 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1468-0297.00527>.
Schultz, T.P. (2004) ‘School subsidies for the poor: evaluating the Mexican Progresa poverty program’, Journal of Development Economics 74(1): 199–250 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2003.12.009>.
Skoufias, E. (2005) Progresa and its Impacts on the Welfare of Rural Households in Mexico, Research Report No. 139, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute.
Solon, G. (1999) ‘Intergenerational mobility in labor market’, in O. Ashenfelter and D. Card (eds), Handbook of Labor Economics, Vol. 3A, pp. 1761–800, Amsterdam: North-Holland <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1573-4463(99)03010-2>.
Sulaiman, M. (2010) Assessing Impact of Asset Transfer on Children’s Education: A Case of BRAC’s Ultra-Poor Programme in Bangladesh, Background paper for Education for All Global Monitoring Report-2010, Paris: UNESCO.
UNESCO (2011) The Hidden Crisis: The Armed Conflict and Education, Education for All Global Monitoring Report-2011, Paris: UNESCO.
Ahmed, A.U., Rabbani, M., Sulaiman, M. and Das, N. (2009) The Impact of Asset Transfer on Livelihoods of the Ultra Poor in Bangladesh, Research Monograph Series no. 39, Dhaka: Research and Evaluation Division, BRAC.
Amin, S., Quayes, M.S. and Rives, J.M. (2004) ‘Poverty and other determinants of child labor in Bangladesh’, Southern Economic Journal 70(4): 876–92.
Attanasio, O., Emla, F., Ana, G., Diana, L., Costas, M. and Alice, M. (2006) Child Education and Work Choices in the Presence of a Conditional Cash Transfer Programme in Rural Colombia, Working Paper No. 06/13, London: Institute for Fiscal Studies (IFS).
Baird, S., McIntosh, C. and Ozler, B. (2011) ‘Cash or condition? Evidence from a cash transfer experiment’, Quarterly Journal of Economics 126: 1709–53 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjr032>.
Banerjee. A., Duflo, E., Goldberge, N., Karlan, D., Osei, R., Pariente, W., Shapiro, J., Thuysbaert, B. and Udry, C. (2015) ‘A multi-faceted livelihood program leads to sustained improvements in the lives of the poorest of the poor: Evidence from randomized controlled trials in six countries’, Science, 348(6236): 1–16 <dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1260799>.
Bandiera, O., Burgess, R., Gulesci, S., Rasult, I. and Sulaiman, M. (2013) Can Entrepreneurship Programs Transform the Economic Lives of the Poor? Economic Organisation and Public Policy Discussion Papers, EOPP 043, London: London School of Economics.
Barham, V., Boadway, R., Marchand, M. and Pestieau, P. (1995) ‘Education and the poverty trap’, European Economic Review 39(7): 1257–75 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0014-2921(94)00040-7>.
Barham, T., Macrous, K. and Maluccio, J.A. (2013) More Schooling and More Learning? Effects of a Three-Year Conditional Cash Transfer Program in Nicaragua after 10 Years, Working paper no. 432, Washington, DC: Inter-American Development Bank.
Chadwick, L. and Solon, G. (2002) ‘Intergenerational income mobility among daughters’, American Economic Review 92(1): 335–44 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/000282802760015766>.
Cockburn, J. and Dostie, B. (2007) ‘Child work and schooling: the role of household asset profile and poverty in Ethiopia’, Journal of African Economies 16(4): 519–63 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jae/ejl045>.
de Brauw, A. and Hoddinott, J. (2011) ‘Must conditional cash transfer programs be conditioned to be effective? The impact of conditioning transfers on school enrolment in Mexico’, Journal of Development Economics 96(2): 359–70. <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2010.08.014>.
Emran, M.S., Robano, V. and Smith, S.C. (2014) ‘Assessing the frontier of ultra-poverty reduction: Evidence from CFPR/TUP, an innovative program in Bangladesh’, Economic Development and Cultural Change 62(2): 339–80 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/674110>.
Garcia, S. and Hill, J. (2010) ‘Impact of conditional cash transfers on children’s school achievement: evidence from Colombia’, Journal of Development Effectiveness 2(1): 117–37 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19439341003628681>.
Glewwe, P. and Jacoby, H.G. (2004) ‘Economic growth and the demand for education: Is there a wealth effect?’ Journal of Development Economics 74 (1): 33–51 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2003.12.003>.
Grimm, M. (2011) ‘Does household income matter for children’s schooling? Evidence for rural sub-Saharan Africa’, Economics of Education Review 30(4): 740–54 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2011.03.002>.
Imbens, G.W. and Wooldridge, J.M. (2009) ‘Recent developments in the econometrics of program evaluation’, Journal of Economic Literature 47(1): 5–86 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/jel.47.1.5>.
Levine, D.I. and Jellema, J.R. (2007) ‘Growth, industrialization, and the intergenerational correlation of advantage’, Industrial Relations 46(1): 130–70.
Maitra, P. (2003) ‘Schooling and educational attainment: evidence from Bangladesh’, Education Economics 11(2): 129–53 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09645290210131665>.
Matin, I., Sulaiman, M. and Rabbani, M. (2008) Crafting a Graduation Pathway for the Ultra Poor: Lessons and Evidence from a BRAC Programme, Working Paper no. 109, Manchester: Chronic Poverty Research Centre.
Nath, S. R. (2008) ‘Private supplementary tutoring among primary students in Bangladesh’, Educational Studies 34(1): 55–72 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03055690701785285>.
Rabbani, M., Prakash, V.A. and Sulaiman, M. (2006) Impact Assessment of CFPR/TUP: A Descriptive Analysis Based on 2002–2005 Panel Data, CFPR/TUP working paper no. 13, Dhaka: BRAC.
Ravallion, M. and Wodon, Q. (2000) ‘Does child labor displace schooling? Evidence from behavioral responses to an enrollment subsidy’, Economic Journal 110(462): 158–75 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1468-0297.00527>.
Schultz, T.P. (2004) ‘School subsidies for the poor: evaluating the Mexican Progresa poverty program’, Journal of Development Economics 74(1): 199–250 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2003.12.009>.
Skoufias, E. (2005) Progresa and its Impacts on the Welfare of Rural Households in Mexico, Research Report No. 139, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute.
Solon, G. (1999) ‘Intergenerational mobility in labor market’, in O. Ashenfelter and D. Card (eds), Handbook of Labor Economics, Vol. 3A, pp. 1761–800, Amsterdam: North-Holland <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1573-4463(99)03010-2>.
Sulaiman, M. (2010) Assessing Impact of Asset Transfer on Children’s Education: A Case of BRAC’s Ultra-Poor Programme in Bangladesh, Background paper for Education for All Global Monitoring Report-2010, Paris: UNESCO.
UNESCO (2011) The Hidden Crisis: The Armed Conflict and Education, Education for All Global Monitoring Report-2011, Paris: UNESCO.
Ahmed, A.U., Rabbani, M., Sulaiman, M. and Das, N. (2009) The Impact of Asset Transfer on Livelihoods of the Ultra Poor in Bangladesh, Research Monograph Series no. 39, Dhaka: Research and Evaluation Division, BRAC.
Amin, S., Quayes, M.S. and Rives, J.M. (2004) ‘Poverty and other determinants of child labor in Bangladesh’, Southern Economic Journal 70(4): 876–92.
Attanasio, O., Emla, F., Ana, G., Diana, L., Costas, M. and Alice, M. (2006) Child Education and Work Choices in the Presence of a Conditional Cash Transfer Programme in Rural Colombia, Working Paper No. 06/13, London: Institute for Fiscal Studies (IFS).
Baird, S., McIntosh, C. and Ozler, B. (2011) ‘Cash or condition? Evidence from a cash transfer experiment’, Quarterly Journal of Economics 126: 1709–53 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjr032>.
Banerjee. A., Duflo, E., Goldberge, N., Karlan, D., Osei, R., Pariente, W., Shapiro, J., Thuysbaert, B. and Udry, C. (2015) ‘A multi-faceted livelihood program leads to sustained improvements in the lives of the poorest of the poor: Evidence from randomized controlled trials in six countries’, Science, 348(6236): 1–16 <dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1260799>.
Bandiera, O., Burgess, R., Gulesci, S., Rasult, I. and Sulaiman, M. (2013) Can Entrepreneurship Programs Transform the Economic Lives of the Poor? Economic Organisation and Public Policy Discussion Papers, EOPP 043, London: London School of Economics.
Barham, V., Boadway, R., Marchand, M. and Pestieau, P. (1995) ‘Education and the poverty trap’, European Economic Review 39(7): 1257–75 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0014-2921(94)00040-7>.
Barham, T., Macrous, K. and Maluccio, J.A. (2013) More Schooling and More Learning? Effects of a Three-Year Conditional Cash Transfer Program in Nicaragua after 10 Years, Working paper no. 432, Washington, DC: Inter-American Development Bank.
Chadwick, L. and Solon, G. (2002) ‘Intergenerational income mobility among daughters’, American Economic Review 92(1): 335–44 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/000282802760015766>.
Cockburn, J. and Dostie, B. (2007) ‘Child work and schooling: the role of household asset profile and poverty in Ethiopia’, Journal of African Economies 16(4): 519–63 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jae/ejl045>.
de Brauw, A. and Hoddinott, J. (2011) ‘Must conditional cash transfer programs be conditioned to be effective? The impact of conditioning transfers on school enrolment in Mexico’, Journal of Development Economics 96(2): 359–70. <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2010.08.014>.
Emran, M.S., Robano, V. and Smith, S.C. (2014) ‘Assessing the frontier of ultra-poverty reduction: Evidence from CFPR/TUP, an innovative program in Bangladesh’, Economic Development and Cultural Change 62(2): 339–80 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/674110>.
Garcia, S. and Hill, J. (2010) ‘Impact of conditional cash transfers on children’s school achievement: evidence from Colombia’, Journal of Development Effectiveness 2(1): 117–37 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19439341003628681>.
Glewwe, P. and Jacoby, H.G. (2004) ‘Economic growth and the demand for education: Is there a wealth effect?’ Journal of Development Economics 74 (1): 33–51 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2003.12.003>.
Grimm, M. (2011) ‘Does household income matter for children’s schooling? Evidence for rural sub-Saharan Africa’, Economics of Education Review 30(4): 740–54 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2011.03.002>.
Imbens, G.W. and Wooldridge, J.M. (2009) ‘Recent developments in the econometrics of program evaluation’, Journal of Economic Literature 47(1): 5–86 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/jel.47.1.5>.
Levine, D.I. and Jellema, J.R. (2007) ‘Growth, industrialization, and the intergenerational correlation of advantage’, Industrial Relations 46(1): 130–70.
Maitra, P. (2003) ‘Schooling and educational attainment: evidence from Bangladesh’, Education Economics 11(2): 129–53 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09645290210131665>.
Matin, I., Sulaiman, M. and Rabbani, M. (2008) Crafting a Graduation Pathway for the Ultra Poor: Lessons and Evidence from a BRAC Programme, Working Paper no. 109, Manchester: Chronic Poverty Research Centre.
Nath, S. R. (2008) ‘Private supplementary tutoring among primary students in Bangladesh’, Educational Studies 34(1): 55–72 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03055690701785285>.
Rabbani, M., Prakash, V.A. and Sulaiman, M. (2006) Impact Assessment of CFPR/TUP: A Descriptive Analysis Based on 2002–2005 Panel Data, CFPR/TUP working paper no. 13, Dhaka: BRAC.
Ravallion, M. and Wodon, Q. (2000) ‘Does child labor displace schooling? Evidence from behavioral responses to an enrollment subsidy’, Economic Journal 110(462): 158–75 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1468-0297.00527>.
Schultz, T.P. (2004) ‘School subsidies for the poor: evaluating the Mexican Progresa poverty program’, Journal of Development Economics 74(1): 199–250 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2003.12.009>.
Skoufias, E. (2005) Progresa and its Impacts on the Welfare of Rural Households in Mexico, Research Report No. 139, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute.
Solon, G. (1999) ‘Intergenerational mobility in labor market’, in O. Ashenfelter and D. Card (eds), Handbook of Labor Economics, Vol. 3A, pp. 1761–800, Amsterdam: North-Holland <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1573-4463(99)03010-2>.
Sulaiman, M. (2010) Assessing Impact of Asset Transfer on Children’s Education: A Case of BRAC’s Ultra-Poor Programme in Bangladesh, Background paper for Education for All Global Monitoring Report-2010, Paris: UNESCO.
UNESCO (2011) The Hidden Crisis: The Armed Conflict and Education, Education for All Global Monitoring Report-2011, Paris: UNESCO.
Ahmed, A.U., Rabbani, M., Sulaiman, M. and Das, N. (2009) The Impact of Asset Transfer on Livelihoods of the Ultra Poor in Bangladesh, Research Monograph Series no. 39, Dhaka: Research and Evaluation Division, BRAC.
Amin, S., Quayes, M.S. and Rives, J.M. (2004) ‘Poverty and other determinants of child labor in Bangladesh’, Southern Economic Journal 70(4): 876–92.
Attanasio, O., Emla, F., Ana, G., Diana, L., Costas, M. and Alice, M. (2006) Child Education and Work Choices in the Presence of a Conditional Cash Transfer Programme in Rural Colombia, Working Paper No. 06/13, London: Institute for Fiscal Studies (IFS).
Baird, S., McIntosh, C. and Ozler, B. (2011) ‘Cash or condition? Evidence from a cash transfer experiment’, Quarterly Journal of Economics 126: 1709–53 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjr032>.
Banerjee. A., Duflo, E., Goldberge, N., Karlan, D., Osei, R., Pariente, W., Shapiro, J., Thuysbaert, B. and Udry, C. (2015) ‘A multi-faceted livelihood program leads to sustained improvements in the lives of the poorest of the poor: Evidence from randomized controlled trials in six countries’, Science, 348(6236): 1–16 <dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1260799>.
Bandiera, O., Burgess, R., Gulesci, S., Rasult, I. and Sulaiman, M. (2013) Can Entrepreneurship Programs Transform the Economic Lives of the Poor? Economic Organisation and Public Policy Discussion Papers, EOPP 043, London: London School of Economics.
Barham, V., Boadway, R., Marchand, M. and Pestieau, P. (1995) ‘Education and the poverty trap’, European Economic Review 39(7): 1257–75 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0014-2921(94)00040-7>.
Barham, T., Macrous, K. and Maluccio, J.A. (2013) More Schooling and More Learning? Effects of a Three-Year Conditional Cash Transfer Program in Nicaragua after 10 Years, Working paper no. 432, Washington, DC: Inter-American Development Bank.
Chadwick, L. and Solon, G. (2002) ‘Intergenerational income mobility among daughters’, American Economic Review 92(1): 335–44 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/000282802760015766>.
Cockburn, J. and Dostie, B. (2007) ‘Child work and schooling: the role of household asset profile and poverty in Ethiopia’, Journal of African Economies 16(4): 519–63 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/jae/ejl045>.
de Brauw, A. and Hoddinott, J. (2011) ‘Must conditional cash transfer programs be conditioned to be effective? The impact of conditioning transfers on school enrolment in Mexico’, Journal of Development Economics 96(2): 359–70. <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2010.08.014>.
Emran, M.S., Robano, V. and Smith, S.C. (2014) ‘Assessing the frontier of ultra-poverty reduction: Evidence from CFPR/TUP, an innovative program in Bangladesh’, Economic Development and Cultural Change 62(2): 339–80 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/674110>.
Garcia, S. and Hill, J. (2010) ‘Impact of conditional cash transfers on children’s school achievement: evidence from Colombia’, Journal of Development Effectiveness 2(1): 117–37 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19439341003628681>.
Glewwe, P. and Jacoby, H.G. (2004) ‘Economic growth and the demand for education: Is there a wealth effect?’ Journal of Development Economics 74 (1): 33–51 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2003.12.003>.
Grimm, M. (2011) ‘Does household income matter for children’s schooling? Evidence for rural sub-Saharan Africa’, Economics of Education Review 30(4): 740–54 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2011.03.002>.
Imbens, G.W. and Wooldridge, J.M. (2009) ‘Recent developments in the econometrics of program evaluation’, Journal of Economic Literature 47(1): 5–86 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/jel.47.1.5>.
Levine, D.I. and Jellema, J.R. (2007) ‘Growth, industrialization, and the intergenerational correlation of advantage’, Industrial Relations 46(1): 130–70.
Maitra, P. (2003) ‘Schooling and educational attainment: evidence from Bangladesh’, Education Economics 11(2): 129–53 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09645290210131665>.
Matin, I., Sulaiman, M. and Rabbani, M. (2008) Crafting a Graduation Pathway for the Ultra Poor: Lessons and Evidence from a BRAC Programme, Working Paper no. 109, Manchester: Chronic Poverty Research Centre.
Nath, S. R. (2008) ‘Private supplementary tutoring among primary students in Bangladesh’, Educational Studies 34(1): 55–72 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/03055690701785285>.
Rabbani, M., Prakash, V.A. and Sulaiman, M. (2006) Impact Assessment of CFPR/TUP: A Descriptive Analysis Based on 2002–2005 Panel Data, CFPR/TUP working paper no. 13, Dhaka: BRAC.
Ravallion, M. and Wodon, Q. (2000) ‘Does child labor displace schooling? Evidence from behavioral responses to an enrollment subsidy’, Economic Journal 110(462): 158–75 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1468-0297.00527>.
Schultz, T.P. (2004) ‘School subsidies for the poor: evaluating the Mexican Progresa poverty program’, Journal of Development Economics 74(1): 199–250 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2003.12.009>.
Skoufias, E. (2005) Progresa and its Impacts on the Welfare of Rural Households in Mexico, Research Report No. 139, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute.
Solon, G. (1999) ‘Intergenerational mobility in labor market’, in O. Ashenfelter and D. Card (eds), Handbook of Labor Economics, Vol. 3A, pp. 1761–800, Amsterdam: North-Holland <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1573-4463(99)03010-2>.
Sulaiman, M. (2010) Assessing Impact of Asset Transfer on Children’s Education: A Case of BRAC’s Ultra-Poor Programme in Bangladesh, Background paper for Education for All Global Monitoring Report-2010, Paris: UNESCO.
UNESCO (2011) The Hidden Crisis: The Armed Conflict and Education, Education for All Global Monitoring Report-2011, Paris: UNESCO.
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