Economic strengthening (ES) approaches are increasingly applied in resource-poor environments, including in humanitarian crisis settings, in order to achieve a wide variety of socio-economic goals. At the same time, randomized control trial (RCT) methodology has become more prevalent in evaluations of ES and other microeconomic interventions. This review is a systematic research synthesis of randomized impact evaluations of NGO-implemented interventions in low-income countries that work to build income and/or economic assets either of the caregiver, the household, or the individual child, adolescent, or youth, where the evaluation looked at any child-level or youth-level outcomes. The papers evaluate interventions that work to build household or individual income and/or assets, such as conditional and unconditional cash and asset transfers, savings, and training. We find a wide variety of direct and indirect interventions that can potentially affect children. Most of the statistically significant findings from these studies are good for children across a range of outcome measures; however among the studies included here, there is no discernible pattern of any particular intervention category (skills training, savings, etc.) being more effective than any other at achieving better outcomes for children. In many outcome categories, researchers could find no short-term impact on children from ES programming at all. Unintended negative effects for children were found in over 20 per cent of the studies in our document set. By focusing on RCT evaluations of non-governmental programmes, we provide information about the highest quality evaluations of interventions that may be feasible to implement for programmers interested in this topic.

Aker, J.C. (2013) Examining Differences in the Effectiveness and Impacts of Vouchers and Unconditional Cash Transfers, Technical Report, New York: UNICEF and London: Concern Worldwide.

Aker, J.C., Boumnijel, R., McClelland, A. and Tierney, N. (2011) Zap It to Me: The Short-Term Impacts of a Mobile Cash Transfer Program, Working Paper 268, Washington, DC: Center for Global Development.

Akresh, R., de Walque, D. and Kazianga, H. (2012) Alternative Cash Transfer Delivery Mechanisms: Impacts on Routine Preventative Health, Working Paper Series 17785, Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.

Akresh, R., de Walque, D. and Kazianga, H. (2013) Cash Transfers and child Schooling: Evidence from a Randomized Evaluation of the Role of Conditionality, Policy Research Working Paper 6340, Washington, DC: World Bank.

Annan, J., Bundervoet, T., Seban, J. and Costigan, J. (2013) Final Evaluation: ‘Urwaruka Rushasha’ (New Generation): A Randomized Impact Evaluation of Village Savings and Loans Associations and Family-Based Interventions in Burundi, Technical report, New York: International Rescue Committee and Washington, DC: USAID.

Arnold, C., Conway, T. and Greenslade, M. (2011) Cash Transfers: Literature Review, Technical Report, London: UK Department for International Development.

Attanasio, O., Augsburg, B., De Haas, R., Fitzsimons, E. and Harmgart, H. (2015) ‘The impacts of microfinance: evidence from joint-liability lending in Mongolia’, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 7(1): 90–122 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/app.20130489>.

Augsburg, B., Haas, R. D., Harmgart, H. and Meghir, C. (2015) ‘The impacts of microcredit: evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina’, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 7(1): 183–203 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/app.20130272>.

Baird, S., Chirwa, E., McIntosh, C. and Özler, B. (2010) ‘The short-term impacts of a schooling conditional cash transfer program on the sexual behavior of young women’, Health Economics 19(S1): 55–68 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hec.1569>.

Baird, S., de Hoop, J. and Özler, B. (2011a) Income Shocks and Adolescent Mental Health, Policy Research Working Paper 5644, Washington, DC: World Bank.

Baird, S., McIntosh, C. and Özler, B. (2011b) ‘Cash or condition? Evidence from a cash transfer experiment’, The Quarterly Journal of Economics 126(4): 1709–53 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjr032>.

Baird, S.J., Garfein, R.S., McIntosh, C.T. and Özler, B. (2012) ‘Effect of a cash transfer programme for schooling on prevalence of HIV and herpes simplex type 2 in Malawi: a cluster randomised trial’, The Lancet 379(9823): 1320–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61709-1>.

Bandiera, O., Buehren, N., Burgess, R., Goldstein, M., Gulesci, S., Rasul, I. and Sulaiman, M. (2012) ‘Empowering adolescent girls: evidence from a randomized control trial in Uganda’, unpublished working paper.

Bandiera, O., Burgess, R., Das, N., Gulesci, S., Rasul, I. and Sulaiman, M. (2013) Can Basic Entrepreneurship Transform the Economic Lives of the Poor? Cambridge, MA: Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab.

Banerjee, A., Duflo, E., Chattopadhyay, R. and Shapiro, J. (2011) Targeting the Hard-Core Poor: An Impact Assessment, Cambridge, MA: Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab.

Banerjee, A., Duflo, E., Glennerster, R. and Kinnan, C. (2014) The Miracle of Microfinance: Evidence from a Randomized Evaluation, Technical Report, Cambridge, MA: Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab.

Barrera-Osorio, F., Bertrand, M., Linden, L. and Perez-Calle, F. (2011) ‘Improving the design of conditional transfer programs: evidence from a randomized education experiment in Colombia’, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 3(2): 167–95 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/app.3.2.167>.

Barrientos, A., Byrne, J., Peña, P. and Villa, J.M. (2014) ‘Social transfers and child protection in the south’, Children and Youth Services Review 47(P2): 105–12 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.07.011>.

Benhassine, N., Devoto, F., Duflo, E., Dupas, P. and Pouliquen, V. (2013) Turning a Shove into a Nudge? A ‘Labeled Cash Transfer’ for Education, Working Paper Series 19227, Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.

Berry, J., Karlan, D. and Pradhan, M. (2014) ‘The impact of financial education for youth in Ghana’, unpublished working paper, Cambridge, MA: Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab.

Blattman, C., Green, E. P., Jamison, J. and Annan, J. (2014) ‘Employing and empowering marginalized women: a randomized trial of microenterprise assistance’, unpublished working paper.

Brunie, A., Fumagalli, L., Martin, T., Field, S. and Rutherford, D. (2014) ‘Can village savings and loan groups be a potential tool in the malnutrition fight? Mixed method findings from Mozambique’, Children and Youth Services Review 47(P2): 113–20 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.07.010>.

Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) (2007) Impacts of Microfinance Initiatives on Children, Technical Report, Gatineau, Quebec: Canadian International Development Agency.

Chaffin, J. (2011) The Impacts of Economic Strengthening Programs on Children: A Review of the Evidence, Technical Report, New York: Child Protection in Crisis (CPC) Livelihoods and Economic Strengthening Task Force.

Cooper, H., Hedges, L.V. and Valentine, J.C. (eds) (2009) The Handbook of Research Synthesis and Meta-Analysis, 2nd edn, New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

Crépon, B., Devoto, F., Duflo, E. and Parienté, W. (2015) ‘Estimating the impact of microcredit on those who take it up: evidence from a randomized experiment in Morocco’, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 7(1): 123–50 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/app.20130535>.

Das, N., Yasmin, R., Ara, J., Kamruzzaman, M., Davis, P., Behrman, J.A., Roy, S. and Quisumbing, A.R. (2013) How Do Intrahousehold Dynamics Change When Assets Are Transferred to Women? Evidence from BRAC’s Challenging the Frontiers of Poverty Reduction – Targeting the Ultra Poor Program in Bangladesh, IFPRI Discussion Paper 01317, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute.

de Mel, S., McKenzie, D. and Woodruff C. (2009) ‘Are women more credit constrained? Experimental evidence on gender and microenterprise returns’, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 1(3): 1–32.

Evans, D.K., Hausladen, S., Kosec, K. and Reese, N. (2014) Community-Based Conditional Cash Transfers in Tanzania: Results from a Randomized Trial, Technical Report, Washington, DC: World Bank.

Fiala, N. (2014) ‘Stimulating microenterprise growth: results from a loans, grants and training experiment in Uganda’, unpublished working paper.

Han, C.-K., Ssewamala, F. M. and Wang, J. S.-H. (2013) ‘Family economic empowerment and mental health among AIDS-affected children living in AIDS-impacted communities: evidence from a randomised evaluation in southwestern Uganda’, Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health 67(3): 225–30 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jech-2012-201601>.

Haushofer, J. and Shapiro, J. (2013) ‘Policy brief: impacts of unconditional cash transfers’, unpublished working paper.

Hidrobo, M., Hoddinott, J., Peterman, A., Margolies, A. and Moreira, V. (2012) Cash, Food, or Vouchers? Evidence from a Randomized Experiment in Northern Ecuador, Discussion Paper 01234, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI).

Hoddinott, J., Sandström, S. and Upton, J. (2014) The Impact of Cash and Food Transfers: Evidence from a Randomized Intervention in Niger, Discussion Paper 01341, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute (IF-PRI).

Karlan, D. and Linden, L.L. (2014) Loose Knots: Strong versus Weak Commitments to Save for Education in Uganda, Cambridge, MA: Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab.

Macours, K., Schady, N. and Vakis, R. (2008) Cash Transfers, Behavioral Changes, and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood, Policy Research Working Paper Series 4759, Washington, DC: World Bank.

MkNelly, B. and Watson, A. (2003) Credit with Education Impact Review No. 3: Children’s Nutritional Status, Davis, CA: Freedom from Hunger.

Mo, D., Zhang, L., Yi, H., Luo, R., Rozelle, S. and Brinton, C. (2013) ‘School dropouts and conditional cash transfers: evidence from a randomised controlled trial in rural China’s junior high schools’, The Journal of Development Studies 49(2): 190–207 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2012.724166>.

Nabunya, P., Ssewamala, F.M. and Ilic, V. (2014) Reprint of ‘Family economic strengthening and parenting stress among caregivers of AIDS-orphaned children: results from a cluster randomized clinical trial in Uganda’, Children and Youth Services Review 47(P2): 182–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.07.018>.

Robertson, L., Mushati, P., Eaton, J.W., Dumba, L., Mavise, G., Makoni, J., Schumacher, C., Crea, T., Monasch, R., Sherr, L., Garnett, G.P., Nyamukapa, C. and Gregson, S. (2013) ‘Effects of unconditional and conditional cash transfers on child health and development in Zimbabwe: a cluster-randomised trial’, The Lancet 381: 1283–92 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)62168-0>.

Rotheram-Borus, M.J., Lightfoot, M., Kasirye, R. and Desmond, K. (2012) ‘Vocational training with HIV prevention for Ugandan youth. AIDS Behavior 16(5): 1133–7 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10461-011-0007-y>.

Ssewamala, F.M., Alicea, S., Bannon, Jr W.M. and Ismayilova, L. (2008) ‘A novel economic intervention to reduce HIV risks among school-going AIDS orphans in rural Uganda’, Journal of Adolescent Health 42: 102–4 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.08.011>.

Ssewamala, F.M., Han, C.-K. and Neilands, T.B. (2009) ‘Asset ownership and health and mental health functioning among AIDS-orphaned adolescents: findings from a randomized clinical trial in rural Uganda’, Social Science & Medicine 69(2): 191–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.05.019>.

Ssewamala, F.M., Han, C.-K., Neilands, T.B., Ismayilova, L. and Sperber, E. (2010a) ‘Effect of economic assets on sexual risk-taking intentions among orphaned adolescents in Uganda’, American Journal of Public Health 100(3): 483–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2008.158840>.

Ssewamala, F.M., Ismayilova, L., McKay, M., Sperber, E., Bannon, W. and Alicea, S. (2010b) ‘Gender and the effects of an economic empowerment program on attitudes toward sexual risk-taking among AIDS-orphaned adolescent youth in Uganda’, Journal of Adolescent Health 46(4): 372–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.08.010>.

Ssewamala, F.M., Neilands, T.B., Waldfogel, J. and Ismayilova, L. (2012) ‘The impact of a comprehensive microfinance intervention on depression levels of AIDS-orphaned children in Uganda’, Journal of Adolescent Health 50(4): 346–52 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.08.008>.

Tarozzi, A., Desai, J. and Johnson, K. (2015) ‘The impacts of microcredit: evidence from Ethiopia’, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 7(1): 54–89 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/app.20130475>.

Aker, J.C. (2013) Examining Differences in the Effectiveness and Impacts of Vouchers and Unconditional Cash Transfers, Technical Report, New York: UNICEF and London: Concern Worldwide.

Aker, J.C., Boumnijel, R., McClelland, A. and Tierney, N. (2011) Zap It to Me: The Short-Term Impacts of a Mobile Cash Transfer Program, Working Paper 268, Washington, DC: Center for Global Development.

Akresh, R., de Walque, D. and Kazianga, H. (2012) Alternative Cash Transfer Delivery Mechanisms: Impacts on Routine Preventative Health, Working Paper Series 17785, Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.

Akresh, R., de Walque, D. and Kazianga, H. (2013) Cash Transfers and child Schooling: Evidence from a Randomized Evaluation of the Role of Conditionality, Policy Research Working Paper 6340, Washington, DC: World Bank.

Annan, J., Bundervoet, T., Seban, J. and Costigan, J. (2013) Final Evaluation: ‘Urwaruka Rushasha’ (New Generation): A Randomized Impact Evaluation of Village Savings and Loans Associations and Family-Based Interventions in Burundi, Technical report, New York: International Rescue Committee and Washington, DC: USAID.

Arnold, C., Conway, T. and Greenslade, M. (2011) Cash Transfers: Literature Review, Technical Report, London: UK Department for International Development.

Attanasio, O., Augsburg, B., De Haas, R., Fitzsimons, E. and Harmgart, H. (2015) ‘The impacts of microfinance: evidence from joint-liability lending in Mongolia’, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 7(1): 90–122 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/app.20130489>.

Augsburg, B., Haas, R. D., Harmgart, H. and Meghir, C. (2015) ‘The impacts of microcredit: evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina’, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 7(1): 183–203 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/app.20130272>.

Baird, S., Chirwa, E., McIntosh, C. and Özler, B. (2010) ‘The short-term impacts of a schooling conditional cash transfer program on the sexual behavior of young women’, Health Economics 19(S1): 55–68 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hec.1569>.

Baird, S., de Hoop, J. and Özler, B. (2011a) Income Shocks and Adolescent Mental Health, Policy Research Working Paper 5644, Washington, DC: World Bank.

Baird, S., McIntosh, C. and Özler, B. (2011b) ‘Cash or condition? Evidence from a cash transfer experiment’, The Quarterly Journal of Economics 126(4): 1709–53 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjr032>.

Baird, S.J., Garfein, R.S., McIntosh, C.T. and Özler, B. (2012) ‘Effect of a cash transfer programme for schooling on prevalence of HIV and herpes simplex type 2 in Malawi: a cluster randomised trial’, The Lancet 379(9823): 1320–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61709-1>.

Bandiera, O., Buehren, N., Burgess, R., Goldstein, M., Gulesci, S., Rasul, I. and Sulaiman, M. (2012) ‘Empowering adolescent girls: evidence from a randomized control trial in Uganda’, unpublished working paper.

Bandiera, O., Burgess, R., Das, N., Gulesci, S., Rasul, I. and Sulaiman, M. (2013) Can Basic Entrepreneurship Transform the Economic Lives of the Poor? Cambridge, MA: Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab.

Banerjee, A., Duflo, E., Chattopadhyay, R. and Shapiro, J. (2011) Targeting the Hard-Core Poor: An Impact Assessment, Cambridge, MA: Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab.

Banerjee, A., Duflo, E., Glennerster, R. and Kinnan, C. (2014) The Miracle of Microfinance: Evidence from a Randomized Evaluation, Technical Report, Cambridge, MA: Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab.

Barrera-Osorio, F., Bertrand, M., Linden, L. and Perez-Calle, F. (2011) ‘Improving the design of conditional transfer programs: evidence from a randomized education experiment in Colombia’, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 3(2): 167–95 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/app.3.2.167>.

Barrientos, A., Byrne, J., Peña, P. and Villa, J.M. (2014) ‘Social transfers and child protection in the south’, Children and Youth Services Review 47(P2): 105–12 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.07.011>.

Benhassine, N., Devoto, F., Duflo, E., Dupas, P. and Pouliquen, V. (2013) Turning a Shove into a Nudge? A ‘Labeled Cash Transfer’ for Education, Working Paper Series 19227, Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.

Berry, J., Karlan, D. and Pradhan, M. (2014) ‘The impact of financial education for youth in Ghana’, unpublished working paper, Cambridge, MA: Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab.

Blattman, C., Green, E. P., Jamison, J. and Annan, J. (2014) ‘Employing and empowering marginalized women: a randomized trial of microenterprise assistance’, unpublished working paper.

Brunie, A., Fumagalli, L., Martin, T., Field, S. and Rutherford, D. (2014) ‘Can village savings and loan groups be a potential tool in the malnutrition fight? Mixed method findings from Mozambique’, Children and Youth Services Review 47(P2): 113–20 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.07.010>.

Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) (2007) Impacts of Microfinance Initiatives on Children, Technical Report, Gatineau, Quebec: Canadian International Development Agency.

Chaffin, J. (2011) The Impacts of Economic Strengthening Programs on Children: A Review of the Evidence, Technical Report, New York: Child Protection in Crisis (CPC) Livelihoods and Economic Strengthening Task Force.

Cooper, H., Hedges, L.V. and Valentine, J.C. (eds) (2009) The Handbook of Research Synthesis and Meta-Analysis, 2nd edn, New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

Crépon, B., Devoto, F., Duflo, E. and Parienté, W. (2015) ‘Estimating the impact of microcredit on those who take it up: evidence from a randomized experiment in Morocco’, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 7(1): 123–50 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/app.20130535>.

Das, N., Yasmin, R., Ara, J., Kamruzzaman, M., Davis, P., Behrman, J.A., Roy, S. and Quisumbing, A.R. (2013) How Do Intrahousehold Dynamics Change When Assets Are Transferred to Women? Evidence from BRAC’s Challenging the Frontiers of Poverty Reduction – Targeting the Ultra Poor Program in Bangladesh, IFPRI Discussion Paper 01317, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute.

de Mel, S., McKenzie, D. and Woodruff C. (2009) ‘Are women more credit constrained? Experimental evidence on gender and microenterprise returns’, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 1(3): 1–32.

Evans, D.K., Hausladen, S., Kosec, K. and Reese, N. (2014) Community-Based Conditional Cash Transfers in Tanzania: Results from a Randomized Trial, Technical Report, Washington, DC: World Bank.

Fiala, N. (2014) ‘Stimulating microenterprise growth: results from a loans, grants and training experiment in Uganda’, unpublished working paper.

Han, C.-K., Ssewamala, F. M. and Wang, J. S.-H. (2013) ‘Family economic empowerment and mental health among AIDS-affected children living in AIDS-impacted communities: evidence from a randomised evaluation in southwestern Uganda’, Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health 67(3): 225–30 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jech-2012-201601>.

Haushofer, J. and Shapiro, J. (2013) ‘Policy brief: impacts of unconditional cash transfers’, unpublished working paper.

Hidrobo, M., Hoddinott, J., Peterman, A., Margolies, A. and Moreira, V. (2012) Cash, Food, or Vouchers? Evidence from a Randomized Experiment in Northern Ecuador, Discussion Paper 01234, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI).

Hoddinott, J., Sandström, S. and Upton, J. (2014) The Impact of Cash and Food Transfers: Evidence from a Randomized Intervention in Niger, Discussion Paper 01341, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute (IF-PRI).

Karlan, D. and Linden, L.L. (2014) Loose Knots: Strong versus Weak Commitments to Save for Education in Uganda, Cambridge, MA: Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab.

Macours, K., Schady, N. and Vakis, R. (2008) Cash Transfers, Behavioral Changes, and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood, Policy Research Working Paper Series 4759, Washington, DC: World Bank.

MkNelly, B. and Watson, A. (2003) Credit with Education Impact Review No. 3: Children’s Nutritional Status, Davis, CA: Freedom from Hunger.

Mo, D., Zhang, L., Yi, H., Luo, R., Rozelle, S. and Brinton, C. (2013) ‘School dropouts and conditional cash transfers: evidence from a randomised controlled trial in rural China’s junior high schools’, The Journal of Development Studies 49(2): 190–207 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2012.724166>.

Nabunya, P., Ssewamala, F.M. and Ilic, V. (2014) Reprint of ‘Family economic strengthening and parenting stress among caregivers of AIDS-orphaned children: results from a cluster randomized clinical trial in Uganda’, Children and Youth Services Review 47(P2): 182–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.07.018>.

Robertson, L., Mushati, P., Eaton, J.W., Dumba, L., Mavise, G., Makoni, J., Schumacher, C., Crea, T., Monasch, R., Sherr, L., Garnett, G.P., Nyamukapa, C. and Gregson, S. (2013) ‘Effects of unconditional and conditional cash transfers on child health and development in Zimbabwe: a cluster-randomised trial’, The Lancet 381: 1283–92 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)62168-0>.

Rotheram-Borus, M.J., Lightfoot, M., Kasirye, R. and Desmond, K. (2012) ‘Vocational training with HIV prevention for Ugandan youth. AIDS Behavior 16(5): 1133–7 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10461-011-0007-y>.

Ssewamala, F.M., Alicea, S., Bannon, Jr W.M. and Ismayilova, L. (2008) ‘A novel economic intervention to reduce HIV risks among school-going AIDS orphans in rural Uganda’, Journal of Adolescent Health 42: 102–4 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.08.011>.

Ssewamala, F.M., Han, C.-K. and Neilands, T.B. (2009) ‘Asset ownership and health and mental health functioning among AIDS-orphaned adolescents: findings from a randomized clinical trial in rural Uganda’, Social Science & Medicine 69(2): 191–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.05.019>.

Ssewamala, F.M., Han, C.-K., Neilands, T.B., Ismayilova, L. and Sperber, E. (2010a) ‘Effect of economic assets on sexual risk-taking intentions among orphaned adolescents in Uganda’, American Journal of Public Health 100(3): 483–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2008.158840>.

Ssewamala, F.M., Ismayilova, L., McKay, M., Sperber, E., Bannon, W. and Alicea, S. (2010b) ‘Gender and the effects of an economic empowerment program on attitudes toward sexual risk-taking among AIDS-orphaned adolescent youth in Uganda’, Journal of Adolescent Health 46(4): 372–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.08.010>.

Ssewamala, F.M., Neilands, T.B., Waldfogel, J. and Ismayilova, L. (2012) ‘The impact of a comprehensive microfinance intervention on depression levels of AIDS-orphaned children in Uganda’, Journal of Adolescent Health 50(4): 346–52 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.08.008>.

Tarozzi, A., Desai, J. and Johnson, K. (2015) ‘The impacts of microcredit: evidence from Ethiopia’, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 7(1): 54–89 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/app.20130475>.

Aker, J.C. (2013) Examining Differences in the Effectiveness and Impacts of Vouchers and Unconditional Cash Transfers, Technical Report, New York: UNICEF and London: Concern Worldwide.

Aker, J.C., Boumnijel, R., McClelland, A. and Tierney, N. (2011) Zap It to Me: The Short-Term Impacts of a Mobile Cash Transfer Program, Working Paper 268, Washington, DC: Center for Global Development.

Akresh, R., de Walque, D. and Kazianga, H. (2012) Alternative Cash Transfer Delivery Mechanisms: Impacts on Routine Preventative Health, Working Paper Series 17785, Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.

Akresh, R., de Walque, D. and Kazianga, H. (2013) Cash Transfers and child Schooling: Evidence from a Randomized Evaluation of the Role of Conditionality, Policy Research Working Paper 6340, Washington, DC: World Bank.

Annan, J., Bundervoet, T., Seban, J. and Costigan, J. (2013) Final Evaluation: ‘Urwaruka Rushasha’ (New Generation): A Randomized Impact Evaluation of Village Savings and Loans Associations and Family-Based Interventions in Burundi, Technical report, New York: International Rescue Committee and Washington, DC: USAID.

Arnold, C., Conway, T. and Greenslade, M. (2011) Cash Transfers: Literature Review, Technical Report, London: UK Department for International Development.

Attanasio, O., Augsburg, B., De Haas, R., Fitzsimons, E. and Harmgart, H. (2015) ‘The impacts of microfinance: evidence from joint-liability lending in Mongolia’, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 7(1): 90–122 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/app.20130489>.

Augsburg, B., Haas, R. D., Harmgart, H. and Meghir, C. (2015) ‘The impacts of microcredit: evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina’, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 7(1): 183–203 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/app.20130272>.

Baird, S., Chirwa, E., McIntosh, C. and Özler, B. (2010) ‘The short-term impacts of a schooling conditional cash transfer program on the sexual behavior of young women’, Health Economics 19(S1): 55–68 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hec.1569>.

Baird, S., de Hoop, J. and Özler, B. (2011a) Income Shocks and Adolescent Mental Health, Policy Research Working Paper 5644, Washington, DC: World Bank.

Baird, S., McIntosh, C. and Özler, B. (2011b) ‘Cash or condition? Evidence from a cash transfer experiment’, The Quarterly Journal of Economics 126(4): 1709–53 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjr032>.

Baird, S.J., Garfein, R.S., McIntosh, C.T. and Özler, B. (2012) ‘Effect of a cash transfer programme for schooling on prevalence of HIV and herpes simplex type 2 in Malawi: a cluster randomised trial’, The Lancet 379(9823): 1320–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61709-1>.

Bandiera, O., Buehren, N., Burgess, R., Goldstein, M., Gulesci, S., Rasul, I. and Sulaiman, M. (2012) ‘Empowering adolescent girls: evidence from a randomized control trial in Uganda’, unpublished working paper.

Bandiera, O., Burgess, R., Das, N., Gulesci, S., Rasul, I. and Sulaiman, M. (2013) Can Basic Entrepreneurship Transform the Economic Lives of the Poor? Cambridge, MA: Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab.

Banerjee, A., Duflo, E., Chattopadhyay, R. and Shapiro, J. (2011) Targeting the Hard-Core Poor: An Impact Assessment, Cambridge, MA: Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab.

Banerjee, A., Duflo, E., Glennerster, R. and Kinnan, C. (2014) The Miracle of Microfinance: Evidence from a Randomized Evaluation, Technical Report, Cambridge, MA: Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab.

Barrera-Osorio, F., Bertrand, M., Linden, L. and Perez-Calle, F. (2011) ‘Improving the design of conditional transfer programs: evidence from a randomized education experiment in Colombia’, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 3(2): 167–95 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/app.3.2.167>.

Barrientos, A., Byrne, J., Peña, P. and Villa, J.M. (2014) ‘Social transfers and child protection in the south’, Children and Youth Services Review 47(P2): 105–12 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.07.011>.

Benhassine, N., Devoto, F., Duflo, E., Dupas, P. and Pouliquen, V. (2013) Turning a Shove into a Nudge? A ‘Labeled Cash Transfer’ for Education, Working Paper Series 19227, Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.

Berry, J., Karlan, D. and Pradhan, M. (2014) ‘The impact of financial education for youth in Ghana’, unpublished working paper, Cambridge, MA: Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab.

Blattman, C., Green, E. P., Jamison, J. and Annan, J. (2014) ‘Employing and empowering marginalized women: a randomized trial of microenterprise assistance’, unpublished working paper.

Brunie, A., Fumagalli, L., Martin, T., Field, S. and Rutherford, D. (2014) ‘Can village savings and loan groups be a potential tool in the malnutrition fight? Mixed method findings from Mozambique’, Children and Youth Services Review 47(P2): 113–20 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.07.010>.

Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) (2007) Impacts of Microfinance Initiatives on Children, Technical Report, Gatineau, Quebec: Canadian International Development Agency.

Chaffin, J. (2011) The Impacts of Economic Strengthening Programs on Children: A Review of the Evidence, Technical Report, New York: Child Protection in Crisis (CPC) Livelihoods and Economic Strengthening Task Force.

Cooper, H., Hedges, L.V. and Valentine, J.C. (eds) (2009) The Handbook of Research Synthesis and Meta-Analysis, 2nd edn, New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

Crépon, B., Devoto, F., Duflo, E. and Parienté, W. (2015) ‘Estimating the impact of microcredit on those who take it up: evidence from a randomized experiment in Morocco’, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 7(1): 123–50 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/app.20130535>.

Das, N., Yasmin, R., Ara, J., Kamruzzaman, M., Davis, P., Behrman, J.A., Roy, S. and Quisumbing, A.R. (2013) How Do Intrahousehold Dynamics Change When Assets Are Transferred to Women? Evidence from BRAC’s Challenging the Frontiers of Poverty Reduction – Targeting the Ultra Poor Program in Bangladesh, IFPRI Discussion Paper 01317, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute.

de Mel, S., McKenzie, D. and Woodruff C. (2009) ‘Are women more credit constrained? Experimental evidence on gender and microenterprise returns’, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 1(3): 1–32.

Evans, D.K., Hausladen, S., Kosec, K. and Reese, N. (2014) Community-Based Conditional Cash Transfers in Tanzania: Results from a Randomized Trial, Technical Report, Washington, DC: World Bank.

Fiala, N. (2014) ‘Stimulating microenterprise growth: results from a loans, grants and training experiment in Uganda’, unpublished working paper.

Han, C.-K., Ssewamala, F. M. and Wang, J. S.-H. (2013) ‘Family economic empowerment and mental health among AIDS-affected children living in AIDS-impacted communities: evidence from a randomised evaluation in southwestern Uganda’, Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health 67(3): 225–30 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jech-2012-201601>.

Haushofer, J. and Shapiro, J. (2013) ‘Policy brief: impacts of unconditional cash transfers’, unpublished working paper.

Hidrobo, M., Hoddinott, J., Peterman, A., Margolies, A. and Moreira, V. (2012) Cash, Food, or Vouchers? Evidence from a Randomized Experiment in Northern Ecuador, Discussion Paper 01234, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI).

Hoddinott, J., Sandström, S. and Upton, J. (2014) The Impact of Cash and Food Transfers: Evidence from a Randomized Intervention in Niger, Discussion Paper 01341, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute (IF-PRI).

Karlan, D. and Linden, L.L. (2014) Loose Knots: Strong versus Weak Commitments to Save for Education in Uganda, Cambridge, MA: Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab.

Macours, K., Schady, N. and Vakis, R. (2008) Cash Transfers, Behavioral Changes, and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood, Policy Research Working Paper Series 4759, Washington, DC: World Bank.

MkNelly, B. and Watson, A. (2003) Credit with Education Impact Review No. 3: Children’s Nutritional Status, Davis, CA: Freedom from Hunger.

Mo, D., Zhang, L., Yi, H., Luo, R., Rozelle, S. and Brinton, C. (2013) ‘School dropouts and conditional cash transfers: evidence from a randomised controlled trial in rural China’s junior high schools’, The Journal of Development Studies 49(2): 190–207 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2012.724166>.

Nabunya, P., Ssewamala, F.M. and Ilic, V. (2014) Reprint of ‘Family economic strengthening and parenting stress among caregivers of AIDS-orphaned children: results from a cluster randomized clinical trial in Uganda’, Children and Youth Services Review 47(P2): 182–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.07.018>.

Robertson, L., Mushati, P., Eaton, J.W., Dumba, L., Mavise, G., Makoni, J., Schumacher, C., Crea, T., Monasch, R., Sherr, L., Garnett, G.P., Nyamukapa, C. and Gregson, S. (2013) ‘Effects of unconditional and conditional cash transfers on child health and development in Zimbabwe: a cluster-randomised trial’, The Lancet 381: 1283–92 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)62168-0>.

Rotheram-Borus, M.J., Lightfoot, M., Kasirye, R. and Desmond, K. (2012) ‘Vocational training with HIV prevention for Ugandan youth. AIDS Behavior 16(5): 1133–7 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10461-011-0007-y>.

Ssewamala, F.M., Alicea, S., Bannon, Jr W.M. and Ismayilova, L. (2008) ‘A novel economic intervention to reduce HIV risks among school-going AIDS orphans in rural Uganda’, Journal of Adolescent Health 42: 102–4 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.08.011>.

Ssewamala, F.M., Han, C.-K. and Neilands, T.B. (2009) ‘Asset ownership and health and mental health functioning among AIDS-orphaned adolescents: findings from a randomized clinical trial in rural Uganda’, Social Science & Medicine 69(2): 191–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.05.019>.

Ssewamala, F.M., Han, C.-K., Neilands, T.B., Ismayilova, L. and Sperber, E. (2010a) ‘Effect of economic assets on sexual risk-taking intentions among orphaned adolescents in Uganda’, American Journal of Public Health 100(3): 483–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2008.158840>.

Ssewamala, F.M., Ismayilova, L., McKay, M., Sperber, E., Bannon, W. and Alicea, S. (2010b) ‘Gender and the effects of an economic empowerment program on attitudes toward sexual risk-taking among AIDS-orphaned adolescent youth in Uganda’, Journal of Adolescent Health 46(4): 372–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.08.010>.

Ssewamala, F.M., Neilands, T.B., Waldfogel, J. and Ismayilova, L. (2012) ‘The impact of a comprehensive microfinance intervention on depression levels of AIDS-orphaned children in Uganda’, Journal of Adolescent Health 50(4): 346–52 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.08.008>.

Tarozzi, A., Desai, J. and Johnson, K. (2015) ‘The impacts of microcredit: evidence from Ethiopia’, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 7(1): 54–89 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/app.20130475>.

Aker, J.C. (2013) Examining Differences in the Effectiveness and Impacts of Vouchers and Unconditional Cash Transfers, Technical Report, New York: UNICEF and London: Concern Worldwide.

Aker, J.C., Boumnijel, R., McClelland, A. and Tierney, N. (2011) Zap It to Me: The Short-Term Impacts of a Mobile Cash Transfer Program, Working Paper 268, Washington, DC: Center for Global Development.

Akresh, R., de Walque, D. and Kazianga, H. (2012) Alternative Cash Transfer Delivery Mechanisms: Impacts on Routine Preventative Health, Working Paper Series 17785, Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.

Akresh, R., de Walque, D. and Kazianga, H. (2013) Cash Transfers and child Schooling: Evidence from a Randomized Evaluation of the Role of Conditionality, Policy Research Working Paper 6340, Washington, DC: World Bank.

Annan, J., Bundervoet, T., Seban, J. and Costigan, J. (2013) Final Evaluation: ‘Urwaruka Rushasha’ (New Generation): A Randomized Impact Evaluation of Village Savings and Loans Associations and Family-Based Interventions in Burundi, Technical report, New York: International Rescue Committee and Washington, DC: USAID.

Arnold, C., Conway, T. and Greenslade, M. (2011) Cash Transfers: Literature Review, Technical Report, London: UK Department for International Development.

Attanasio, O., Augsburg, B., De Haas, R., Fitzsimons, E. and Harmgart, H. (2015) ‘The impacts of microfinance: evidence from joint-liability lending in Mongolia’, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 7(1): 90–122 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/app.20130489>.

Augsburg, B., Haas, R. D., Harmgart, H. and Meghir, C. (2015) ‘The impacts of microcredit: evidence from Bosnia and Herzegovina’, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 7(1): 183–203 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/app.20130272>.

Baird, S., Chirwa, E., McIntosh, C. and Özler, B. (2010) ‘The short-term impacts of a schooling conditional cash transfer program on the sexual behavior of young women’, Health Economics 19(S1): 55–68 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/hec.1569>.

Baird, S., de Hoop, J. and Özler, B. (2011a) Income Shocks and Adolescent Mental Health, Policy Research Working Paper 5644, Washington, DC: World Bank.

Baird, S., McIntosh, C. and Özler, B. (2011b) ‘Cash or condition? Evidence from a cash transfer experiment’, The Quarterly Journal of Economics 126(4): 1709–53 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjr032>.

Baird, S.J., Garfein, R.S., McIntosh, C.T. and Özler, B. (2012) ‘Effect of a cash transfer programme for schooling on prevalence of HIV and herpes simplex type 2 in Malawi: a cluster randomised trial’, The Lancet 379(9823): 1320–9 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61709-1>.

Bandiera, O., Buehren, N., Burgess, R., Goldstein, M., Gulesci, S., Rasul, I. and Sulaiman, M. (2012) ‘Empowering adolescent girls: evidence from a randomized control trial in Uganda’, unpublished working paper.

Bandiera, O., Burgess, R., Das, N., Gulesci, S., Rasul, I. and Sulaiman, M. (2013) Can Basic Entrepreneurship Transform the Economic Lives of the Poor? Cambridge, MA: Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab.

Banerjee, A., Duflo, E., Chattopadhyay, R. and Shapiro, J. (2011) Targeting the Hard-Core Poor: An Impact Assessment, Cambridge, MA: Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab.

Banerjee, A., Duflo, E., Glennerster, R. and Kinnan, C. (2014) The Miracle of Microfinance: Evidence from a Randomized Evaluation, Technical Report, Cambridge, MA: Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab.

Barrera-Osorio, F., Bertrand, M., Linden, L. and Perez-Calle, F. (2011) ‘Improving the design of conditional transfer programs: evidence from a randomized education experiment in Colombia’, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 3(2): 167–95 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/app.3.2.167>.

Barrientos, A., Byrne, J., Peña, P. and Villa, J.M. (2014) ‘Social transfers and child protection in the south’, Children and Youth Services Review 47(P2): 105–12 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.07.011>.

Benhassine, N., Devoto, F., Duflo, E., Dupas, P. and Pouliquen, V. (2013) Turning a Shove into a Nudge? A ‘Labeled Cash Transfer’ for Education, Working Paper Series 19227, Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.

Berry, J., Karlan, D. and Pradhan, M. (2014) ‘The impact of financial education for youth in Ghana’, unpublished working paper, Cambridge, MA: Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab.

Blattman, C., Green, E. P., Jamison, J. and Annan, J. (2014) ‘Employing and empowering marginalized women: a randomized trial of microenterprise assistance’, unpublished working paper.

Brunie, A., Fumagalli, L., Martin, T., Field, S. and Rutherford, D. (2014) ‘Can village savings and loan groups be a potential tool in the malnutrition fight? Mixed method findings from Mozambique’, Children and Youth Services Review 47(P2): 113–20 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.07.010>.

Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) (2007) Impacts of Microfinance Initiatives on Children, Technical Report, Gatineau, Quebec: Canadian International Development Agency.

Chaffin, J. (2011) The Impacts of Economic Strengthening Programs on Children: A Review of the Evidence, Technical Report, New York: Child Protection in Crisis (CPC) Livelihoods and Economic Strengthening Task Force.

Cooper, H., Hedges, L.V. and Valentine, J.C. (eds) (2009) The Handbook of Research Synthesis and Meta-Analysis, 2nd edn, New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

Crépon, B., Devoto, F., Duflo, E. and Parienté, W. (2015) ‘Estimating the impact of microcredit on those who take it up: evidence from a randomized experiment in Morocco’, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 7(1): 123–50 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/app.20130535>.

Das, N., Yasmin, R., Ara, J., Kamruzzaman, M., Davis, P., Behrman, J.A., Roy, S. and Quisumbing, A.R. (2013) How Do Intrahousehold Dynamics Change When Assets Are Transferred to Women? Evidence from BRAC’s Challenging the Frontiers of Poverty Reduction – Targeting the Ultra Poor Program in Bangladesh, IFPRI Discussion Paper 01317, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute.

de Mel, S., McKenzie, D. and Woodruff C. (2009) ‘Are women more credit constrained? Experimental evidence on gender and microenterprise returns’, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 1(3): 1–32.

Evans, D.K., Hausladen, S., Kosec, K. and Reese, N. (2014) Community-Based Conditional Cash Transfers in Tanzania: Results from a Randomized Trial, Technical Report, Washington, DC: World Bank.

Fiala, N. (2014) ‘Stimulating microenterprise growth: results from a loans, grants and training experiment in Uganda’, unpublished working paper.

Han, C.-K., Ssewamala, F. M. and Wang, J. S.-H. (2013) ‘Family economic empowerment and mental health among AIDS-affected children living in AIDS-impacted communities: evidence from a randomised evaluation in southwestern Uganda’, Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health 67(3): 225–30 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/jech-2012-201601>.

Haushofer, J. and Shapiro, J. (2013) ‘Policy brief: impacts of unconditional cash transfers’, unpublished working paper.

Hidrobo, M., Hoddinott, J., Peterman, A., Margolies, A. and Moreira, V. (2012) Cash, Food, or Vouchers? Evidence from a Randomized Experiment in Northern Ecuador, Discussion Paper 01234, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI).

Hoddinott, J., Sandström, S. and Upton, J. (2014) The Impact of Cash and Food Transfers: Evidence from a Randomized Intervention in Niger, Discussion Paper 01341, Washington, DC: International Food Policy Research Institute (IF-PRI).

Karlan, D. and Linden, L.L. (2014) Loose Knots: Strong versus Weak Commitments to Save for Education in Uganda, Cambridge, MA: Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab.

Macours, K., Schady, N. and Vakis, R. (2008) Cash Transfers, Behavioral Changes, and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood, Policy Research Working Paper Series 4759, Washington, DC: World Bank.

MkNelly, B. and Watson, A. (2003) Credit with Education Impact Review No. 3: Children’s Nutritional Status, Davis, CA: Freedom from Hunger.

Mo, D., Zhang, L., Yi, H., Luo, R., Rozelle, S. and Brinton, C. (2013) ‘School dropouts and conditional cash transfers: evidence from a randomised controlled trial in rural China’s junior high schools’, The Journal of Development Studies 49(2): 190–207 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2012.724166>.

Nabunya, P., Ssewamala, F.M. and Ilic, V. (2014) Reprint of ‘Family economic strengthening and parenting stress among caregivers of AIDS-orphaned children: results from a cluster randomized clinical trial in Uganda’, Children and Youth Services Review 47(P2): 182–6 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.07.018>.

Robertson, L., Mushati, P., Eaton, J.W., Dumba, L., Mavise, G., Makoni, J., Schumacher, C., Crea, T., Monasch, R., Sherr, L., Garnett, G.P., Nyamukapa, C. and Gregson, S. (2013) ‘Effects of unconditional and conditional cash transfers on child health and development in Zimbabwe: a cluster-randomised trial’, The Lancet 381: 1283–92 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(12)62168-0>.

Rotheram-Borus, M.J., Lightfoot, M., Kasirye, R. and Desmond, K. (2012) ‘Vocational training with HIV prevention for Ugandan youth. AIDS Behavior 16(5): 1133–7 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10461-011-0007-y>.

Ssewamala, F.M., Alicea, S., Bannon, Jr W.M. and Ismayilova, L. (2008) ‘A novel economic intervention to reduce HIV risks among school-going AIDS orphans in rural Uganda’, Journal of Adolescent Health 42: 102–4 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.08.011>.

Ssewamala, F.M., Han, C.-K. and Neilands, T.B. (2009) ‘Asset ownership and health and mental health functioning among AIDS-orphaned adolescents: findings from a randomized clinical trial in rural Uganda’, Social Science & Medicine 69(2): 191–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.05.019>.

Ssewamala, F.M., Han, C.-K., Neilands, T.B., Ismayilova, L. and Sperber, E. (2010a) ‘Effect of economic assets on sexual risk-taking intentions among orphaned adolescents in Uganda’, American Journal of Public Health 100(3): 483–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2008.158840>.

Ssewamala, F.M., Ismayilova, L., McKay, M., Sperber, E., Bannon, W. and Alicea, S. (2010b) ‘Gender and the effects of an economic empowerment program on attitudes toward sexual risk-taking among AIDS-orphaned adolescent youth in Uganda’, Journal of Adolescent Health 46(4): 372–8 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.08.010>.

Ssewamala, F.M., Neilands, T.B., Waldfogel, J. and Ismayilova, L. (2012) ‘The impact of a comprehensive microfinance intervention on depression levels of AIDS-orphaned children in Uganda’, Journal of Adolescent Health 50(4): 346–52 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2011.08.008>.

Tarozzi, A., Desai, J. and Johnson, K. (2015) ‘The impacts of microcredit: evidence from Ethiopia’, American Economic Journal: Applied Economics 7(1): 54–89 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1257/app.20130475>.