Education is one of the most significant and persistent development challenges globally. Despite 65 years of investment of aid money into education in developing countries, the number of children emerging with key skills remains critically low. While enrolment has increased, there is evidence that this is the result of target chasing and has had limited impact on educational outcomes. The limited impact of aid on education should not be surprising. At best, aid to education has provided only a small supplement to an already broken system. This paper proposes a framework for the analysis of the motivations of aid programmes, and then employs this framework to examine different approaches to education and the parameters according to which they have succeeded or failed. Using the framework to explain why prevailing approaches have resulted in the outcomes realized, the paper then examines the possibility for an alternative approach to be taken to intervention in education, one which attempts to change the way the education system operates to create a sustainable, large-scale impact. This potential is explored through an innovative programme being implemented in Lagos, Nigeria, which attempts to adopt such an approach.

Akvorsr (2015) ‘Northern Uganda Wash Alliance Project’ [online] <http://rsr.akvo.org/project/451/> [accessed 11 March 2016].

Altinyelken, H.K. (2013) ‘Teachers’ principled resistance to curriculum change: a compelling case from Turkey’, in A. Verger, H.K. Altinyelken, and M. de Koning (eds), Global Managerial Education Reforms and Teachers, pp. 109–26, Brussels: Education International Research Institute.

Andrabi, T., Das, J. and Khwaja, A.Z. (2015) Delivering Education: A Pragmatic Framework for Improving Education in Low-Income Countries, Policy Research working paper no. WPS 7277, Washington, DC: World Bank Group.

Angrist, J., Bettinger, E. and Kremer, M. (2006) ‘Long-term educational consequences of secondary school vouchers: evidence from administrative records in Colombia’, The American Economic Review 96(3): 847–62.

Baker, L. and Bernstein, H. (2012) The Impact of School Buildings on Student Health and Performance: A Call for Research, New York: McGraw-Hill Research Foundation.

Banerji, R., Bhattacharjea, S. and Wadhwa, W. (2014) ‘The Annual Status of Education Report (ASER)’, Research in Comparative and International Education 8: 387–96.

Bangay, C. and Latham, M. (2013) ‘Are we asking the right questions? Moving beyond the state vs. non-state providers debate: reflections and a case study from India’, International Journal of Educational Development 33: 244–52.

Birdsall, N., Levine, R. and Ibrahim, A. (2005) ‘Towards universal primary education: investments, incentives, and institutions’, European Journal of Education 40: 337–49.

Birdsall, N., Savedoff, W.D., Mahgoub, A. and Vyborny, K. (2010) Cash On Delivery: A New Approach to Foreign Aid, Washington, DC: CGD Books.

Boissiere, M. (2004) Determinants of Primary Education Outcomes in Developing Countries, Washington, DC: World Bank, Independent Evaluation Group (IEG).

Bonner, R., Das, P., Kalra, R., Leathes, B. and Wakeham, N. (2011) Delivering Cost Effective and Sustainable School Infrastructure, London: TI-UP Resource Centre.

Colclough, C. (1996) ‘Education and the market: which parts of the neoliberal solution are correct?’ World Development 24: 589–610.

Colclough, C. (1997) Marketizing Education and Health in Developing Countries: Miracle or Mirage? Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Day Ashley, L., Mcloughlin, C., Aslam, M., Engel, J., Wales, J. and Rawal, S. (2014) The Role and Impact of Private Schools in Developing Countries: A Rigorous Review of the Evidence, Final report, Education Rigorous Literature Review (EPPI-Centre reference No 2206), London: Department for International Development.

Deininger, K. (2003) ‘Does cost of schooling affect enrolment by the poor? Universal primary education in Uganda’, Economics of Education Review 22: 291–305.

Dixon, P. (2013) International Aid and Private Schools for the Poor: Smiles, Miracles and Markets, London: Edward Elgar Publishing.

DFID and SDC (eds) (2008) The Operational Guide for the Making Markets Work for the Poor (M4P) Approach, Stockholm: SDC and London: DFID.

ESSPIN (2008) An Assessment of the Development Needs of Teachers in Nigeria: Kwara State Case Study, Lagos: ESSPIN.

Feyzioglu, T., Swaroop, V. and Zhu, M. (1998) ‘A panel data analysis of the fungibility of foreign aid’, The World Bank Economic Review 12: 29–58.

Fine, B. and Hall, D. (2012) ‘Terrains of neoliberalism: constraints and opportunities for alternative models of service delivery’, in D. McDonald and G. Ruiters (eds.), Alternatives to Privatization: Public Options for Essential Services in the Global South, pp. 45–70, London: Routledge; Pretoria: HSRC.

Forster, G. (2011) A Win-Win Solution: The Empirical Evidence on School Choice, Indianapolis: The Friedman Foundation for Education Choice.

Fullan, M. and Watson, N. (2000) ‘School-based management: reconceptualizing to improve learning outcomes’, School Effectiveness and School Improvement 11: 453–73.

Glewwe, P. and Kremer, M. (2006) ‘Schools, teachers, and education outcomes in developing countries’, in E. Hanushek (ed.), Handbook of the Economics of Education 2, pp. 945–1017, London: Elsevier.

Global Initiative for Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (2013) ‘Parallel Report submitted by the Coalition Marocaine pour l’Éducation pour Tous, the Global Initiative for Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and Sylvain Aubry to the Pre-sessional Working Group of the Committee on the Rights of the Child on the occasion of the consideration of the List of Issues related to the Third and Fourth Periodic Reports of Morocco during the Committee’s 67th Session’ [pdf] <http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/Treaties/CRC/Shared%20Documents/MAR/INT_CRC_NGO_MAR_16428_E.pdf> [accessed 13 March 2016].

Greene, J. (2001) ‘Vouchers in Charlotte’, Education Matters 1(2): 55–60.

Härmä, J. and Adefisayo, F. (2013) ‘Scaling up: the challenges facing low-fee private schools in the slums of Lagos, Nigeria’, in P. Srivastava (ed.), Low-Fee Private Schooling: Aggravating Equity or Mediating Disadvantage? pp. 129–51, Oxford: Symposium Books.

Hitchins, R., Elliott, D. and Gibson, A. (2004) ‘Making business service markets work for the rural poor: a review of experience’, Small Enterprise Development 16: 10–23.

Howell W.G. and Peterson, P.E. (2003) The Education Gap: Vouchers and Urban Schools, Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.

Kadzamira, E. and Rose, P. (2003) ‘Can free primary education meet the needs of the poor? Evidence from Malawi’, International Journal of Educational Development 23: 501–16.

King, K. (2013) ‘Education and development in the post-2015 landscapes’, Norrag News 49.

Kingdon, G.G. (1996) ‘Private schooling in India: size, nature, and equity-effects’, Economic and Political Weekly 3306–14.

Kitaev, I. (1999) Private Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Re-Examination of Theories and Concepts Related to Its Development and Finance. Mechanisms and Strategies of Educational Finance, Paris: IIEP/UNESCO.

Kolb, D.A. (2014) Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Ladd, H.F. (2002) ‘School vouchers: a critical view’, Journal of Economic Perspectives 16(4): 3–24.

Ladd, H. and Loeb, S. (2013) ‘The challenges of measuring school quality’, Education, Justice, and Democracy 19: 22–55.

Lockheed, M. (2008) Measuring Progress with Tests of Learning: Pros and Cons for ‘Cash on Delivery Aid’ in Education, Working Paper 147, Washington, DC: Center for Global Development.

Lockheed, M. and Hanushek, E. (1988) ‘Improving educational efficiency in developing countries: what do we know?’ Compare 18(1): 21–38.

Mcewan, P.J. and Carnoy, M. (2000) ‘The effectiveness and efficiency of private schools in Chile’s voucher system’, Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 22: 213–39.

Macpherson, I., Robertson, S. and Walford, G. (2014) Education, Privatisation and Social Justice: Case Studies from Africa, South Asia and South East Asia, Oxford: Symposium Books Ltd.

Muralidharan, K. and Sundararaman, V. (2015) ‘The aggregate effect of school choice: evidence from a two-stage experiment in India’, Quarterly Journal of Economics 130(3): 1011–66 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjv013>.

Nishimura, M., Yamano, T. and Sasaoka, Y. (2008) ‘Impacts of the universal primary education policy on educational attainment and private costs in rural Uganda’, International Journal of Educational Development 28: 161–75.

OECD (2015) Query Wizard for International Development Statistics (QWIDS), Paris: OECD.

Paine, N. (2014) The Learning Challenge: Dealing with Technology, Innovation and Change in Learning and Development, London: Kogan Page Publishers.

Patrinos, H.A., Osorio, F.B. and Guáqueta, J. (2009) The Role and Impact of Public-Private Partnerships in Education, Washington, DC: World Bank Publications.

Petrosino, A., Morgan, C., Fronius, T., Tanner-Smith, E. and Boruch, R. (2012) ‘Interventions in developing nations for improving primary and secondary school enrollment of children: a systematic review’, Campbell Systematic Reviews 8.

Pritchett, L. (2013) The Rebirth of Education: Schooling Ain’t Learning, Washington, DC: CGD Books.

Pritchett, L. and Viarengo, M. (2015) ‘The state, socialization and private schooling: when will governments support alternative producers?’ Journal of Development Studies 51(7): 784–807.

PSP4H (2015) ‘The M4P in Health Portal’ [online], Nairobi, Kenya: Private Sector Innovation Programme for Health <www.psp4h.com/> [accessed 13 April 2015].

De Renzio, P. and Woods, N. (2008) The Trouble with Cash on Delivery Aid: A note on its potential effects on recipient country institutions: A note prepared for CGD Initiative on ‘Cash on Delivery Aid’ [pdf], Washington, DC: CGD <www.cgdev.org/doc/Cash%20on%20Delivery%20AID/Derenzio%20Woods.pdf> [accessed 15 March 2016].

Schiefelbein, E. and Mcginn, N.F. (2013) ‘Interim report on survey of teaching practices in developing countries’, Electronic Journal of Educational Research, Assessment & Evaluation 19(1): 1–13.

Shepherd, D. (2015) Learn to Teach, Teach to Learn: A Within-Pupil Across-Subject Approach to Estimating the Impact of Teacher Subject Knowledge on South African Grade 6 Performance, Stellenbosch Economic Working Papers 1(15), University of Stellenbosch.

Taylor, B. (2014) ‘Who wants to give forever? Giving meaning to sustainability in development’, Journal of International Development 26: 1181–96.

Tooley, J. (2005) The Global Education Industry, IEA Hobart Paper, London: IEA.

Tooley, J. and Dixon, P. (2003) Private Schools for the Poor: A Case Study from India, Reading, UK: Centre for British Teachers.

Tooley, J. and Longfield, D. (2015) The Role and Impact of Private Schools in Developing Countries: A Response to the DFID-Commissioned ‘Rigorous Literature Review’, London: Pearson.

UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) (2015) ‘UIS.Stat’ [online] <http://data.uis.unesco.org/> [accessed 15 March 2016].

USAID, SDC, and DFID (2013) ‘USAID, DFID, and SDC to explore collaboration on inclusive markets’ [online], Microlinks <https://www.microlinks.org/learning-marketplace/news/usaid-dfid-and-sdc-explore-collaboration-inclusive-markets> [accessed 11 March 2016].

Van De Sijpe, N. (2012) ‘Is foreign aid fungible? Evidence from the education and health sectors’, The World Bank Economic Review 27(2): 320–56.

Wolf, P., Egalite, A.J. and Dixon, P. (2015) ‘Private school choice in developing countries: experimental results from Delhi, India’, in P. Dixon, S. Humble, and C. Counihan (eds), Handbook of International Development and Education, Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.

Akvorsr (2015) ‘Northern Uganda Wash Alliance Project’ [online] <http://rsr.akvo.org/project/451/> [accessed 11 March 2016].

Altinyelken, H.K. (2013) ‘Teachers’ principled resistance to curriculum change: a compelling case from Turkey’, in A. Verger, H.K. Altinyelken, and M. de Koning (eds), Global Managerial Education Reforms and Teachers, pp. 109–26, Brussels: Education International Research Institute.

Andrabi, T., Das, J. and Khwaja, A.Z. (2015) Delivering Education: A Pragmatic Framework for Improving Education in Low-Income Countries, Policy Research working paper no. WPS 7277, Washington, DC: World Bank Group.

Angrist, J., Bettinger, E. and Kremer, M. (2006) ‘Long-term educational consequences of secondary school vouchers: evidence from administrative records in Colombia’, The American Economic Review 96(3): 847–62.

Baker, L. and Bernstein, H. (2012) The Impact of School Buildings on Student Health and Performance: A Call for Research, New York: McGraw-Hill Research Foundation.

Banerji, R., Bhattacharjea, S. and Wadhwa, W. (2014) ‘The Annual Status of Education Report (ASER)’, Research in Comparative and International Education 8: 387–96.

Bangay, C. and Latham, M. (2013) ‘Are we asking the right questions? Moving beyond the state vs. non-state providers debate: reflections and a case study from India’, International Journal of Educational Development 33: 244–52.

Birdsall, N., Levine, R. and Ibrahim, A. (2005) ‘Towards universal primary education: investments, incentives, and institutions’, European Journal of Education 40: 337–49.

Birdsall, N., Savedoff, W.D., Mahgoub, A. and Vyborny, K. (2010) Cash On Delivery: A New Approach to Foreign Aid, Washington, DC: CGD Books.

Boissiere, M. (2004) Determinants of Primary Education Outcomes in Developing Countries, Washington, DC: World Bank, Independent Evaluation Group (IEG).

Bonner, R., Das, P., Kalra, R., Leathes, B. and Wakeham, N. (2011) Delivering Cost Effective and Sustainable School Infrastructure, London: TI-UP Resource Centre.

Colclough, C. (1996) ‘Education and the market: which parts of the neoliberal solution are correct?’ World Development 24: 589–610.

Colclough, C. (1997) Marketizing Education and Health in Developing Countries: Miracle or Mirage? Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Day Ashley, L., Mcloughlin, C., Aslam, M., Engel, J., Wales, J. and Rawal, S. (2014) The Role and Impact of Private Schools in Developing Countries: A Rigorous Review of the Evidence, Final report, Education Rigorous Literature Review (EPPI-Centre reference No 2206), London: Department for International Development.

Deininger, K. (2003) ‘Does cost of schooling affect enrolment by the poor? Universal primary education in Uganda’, Economics of Education Review 22: 291–305.

Dixon, P. (2013) International Aid and Private Schools for the Poor: Smiles, Miracles and Markets, London: Edward Elgar Publishing.

DFID and SDC (eds) (2008) The Operational Guide for the Making Markets Work for the Poor (M4P) Approach, Stockholm: SDC and London: DFID.

ESSPIN (2008) An Assessment of the Development Needs of Teachers in Nigeria: Kwara State Case Study, Lagos: ESSPIN.

Feyzioglu, T., Swaroop, V. and Zhu, M. (1998) ‘A panel data analysis of the fungibility of foreign aid’, The World Bank Economic Review 12: 29–58.

Fine, B. and Hall, D. (2012) ‘Terrains of neoliberalism: constraints and opportunities for alternative models of service delivery’, in D. McDonald and G. Ruiters (eds.), Alternatives to Privatization: Public Options for Essential Services in the Global South, pp. 45–70, London: Routledge; Pretoria: HSRC.

Forster, G. (2011) A Win-Win Solution: The Empirical Evidence on School Choice, Indianapolis: The Friedman Foundation for Education Choice.

Fullan, M. and Watson, N. (2000) ‘School-based management: reconceptualizing to improve learning outcomes’, School Effectiveness and School Improvement 11: 453–73.

Glewwe, P. and Kremer, M. (2006) ‘Schools, teachers, and education outcomes in developing countries’, in E. Hanushek (ed.), Handbook of the Economics of Education 2, pp. 945–1017, London: Elsevier.

Global Initiative for Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (2013) ‘Parallel Report submitted by the Coalition Marocaine pour l’Éducation pour Tous, the Global Initiative for Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and Sylvain Aubry to the Pre-sessional Working Group of the Committee on the Rights of the Child on the occasion of the consideration of the List of Issues related to the Third and Fourth Periodic Reports of Morocco during the Committee’s 67th Session’ [pdf] <http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/Treaties/CRC/Shared%20Documents/MAR/INT_CRC_NGO_MAR_16428_E.pdf> [accessed 13 March 2016].

Greene, J. (2001) ‘Vouchers in Charlotte’, Education Matters 1(2): 55–60.

Härmä, J. and Adefisayo, F. (2013) ‘Scaling up: the challenges facing low-fee private schools in the slums of Lagos, Nigeria’, in P. Srivastava (ed.), Low-Fee Private Schooling: Aggravating Equity or Mediating Disadvantage? pp. 129–51, Oxford: Symposium Books.

Hitchins, R., Elliott, D. and Gibson, A. (2004) ‘Making business service markets work for the rural poor: a review of experience’, Small Enterprise Development 16: 10–23.

Howell W.G. and Peterson, P.E. (2003) The Education Gap: Vouchers and Urban Schools, Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.

Kadzamira, E. and Rose, P. (2003) ‘Can free primary education meet the needs of the poor? Evidence from Malawi’, International Journal of Educational Development 23: 501–16.

King, K. (2013) ‘Education and development in the post-2015 landscapes’, Norrag News 49.

Kingdon, G.G. (1996) ‘Private schooling in India: size, nature, and equity-effects’, Economic and Political Weekly 3306–14.

Kitaev, I. (1999) Private Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Re-Examination of Theories and Concepts Related to Its Development and Finance. Mechanisms and Strategies of Educational Finance, Paris: IIEP/UNESCO.

Kolb, D.A. (2014) Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Ladd, H.F. (2002) ‘School vouchers: a critical view’, Journal of Economic Perspectives 16(4): 3–24.

Ladd, H. and Loeb, S. (2013) ‘The challenges of measuring school quality’, Education, Justice, and Democracy 19: 22–55.

Lockheed, M. (2008) Measuring Progress with Tests of Learning: Pros and Cons for ‘Cash on Delivery Aid’ in Education, Working Paper 147, Washington, DC: Center for Global Development.

Lockheed, M. and Hanushek, E. (1988) ‘Improving educational efficiency in developing countries: what do we know?’ Compare 18(1): 21–38.

Mcewan, P.J. and Carnoy, M. (2000) ‘The effectiveness and efficiency of private schools in Chile’s voucher system’, Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 22: 213–39.

Macpherson, I., Robertson, S. and Walford, G. (2014) Education, Privatisation and Social Justice: Case Studies from Africa, South Asia and South East Asia, Oxford: Symposium Books Ltd.

Muralidharan, K. and Sundararaman, V. (2015) ‘The aggregate effect of school choice: evidence from a two-stage experiment in India’, Quarterly Journal of Economics 130(3): 1011–66 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjv013>.

Nishimura, M., Yamano, T. and Sasaoka, Y. (2008) ‘Impacts of the universal primary education policy on educational attainment and private costs in rural Uganda’, International Journal of Educational Development 28: 161–75.

OECD (2015) Query Wizard for International Development Statistics (QWIDS), Paris: OECD.

Paine, N. (2014) The Learning Challenge: Dealing with Technology, Innovation and Change in Learning and Development, London: Kogan Page Publishers.

Patrinos, H.A., Osorio, F.B. and Guáqueta, J. (2009) The Role and Impact of Public-Private Partnerships in Education, Washington, DC: World Bank Publications.

Petrosino, A., Morgan, C., Fronius, T., Tanner-Smith, E. and Boruch, R. (2012) ‘Interventions in developing nations for improving primary and secondary school enrollment of children: a systematic review’, Campbell Systematic Reviews 8.

Pritchett, L. (2013) The Rebirth of Education: Schooling Ain’t Learning, Washington, DC: CGD Books.

Pritchett, L. and Viarengo, M. (2015) ‘The state, socialization and private schooling: when will governments support alternative producers?’ Journal of Development Studies 51(7): 784–807.

PSP4H (2015) ‘The M4P in Health Portal’ [online], Nairobi, Kenya: Private Sector Innovation Programme for Health <www.psp4h.com/> [accessed 13 April 2015].

De Renzio, P. and Woods, N. (2008) The Trouble with Cash on Delivery Aid: A note on its potential effects on recipient country institutions: A note prepared for CGD Initiative on ‘Cash on Delivery Aid’ [pdf], Washington, DC: CGD <www.cgdev.org/doc/Cash%20on%20Delivery%20AID/Derenzio%20Woods.pdf> [accessed 15 March 2016].

Schiefelbein, E. and Mcginn, N.F. (2013) ‘Interim report on survey of teaching practices in developing countries’, Electronic Journal of Educational Research, Assessment & Evaluation 19(1): 1–13.

Shepherd, D. (2015) Learn to Teach, Teach to Learn: A Within-Pupil Across-Subject Approach to Estimating the Impact of Teacher Subject Knowledge on South African Grade 6 Performance, Stellenbosch Economic Working Papers 1(15), University of Stellenbosch.

Taylor, B. (2014) ‘Who wants to give forever? Giving meaning to sustainability in development’, Journal of International Development 26: 1181–96.

Tooley, J. (2005) The Global Education Industry, IEA Hobart Paper, London: IEA.

Tooley, J. and Dixon, P. (2003) Private Schools for the Poor: A Case Study from India, Reading, UK: Centre for British Teachers.

Tooley, J. and Longfield, D. (2015) The Role and Impact of Private Schools in Developing Countries: A Response to the DFID-Commissioned ‘Rigorous Literature Review’, London: Pearson.

UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) (2015) ‘UIS.Stat’ [online] <http://data.uis.unesco.org/> [accessed 15 March 2016].

USAID, SDC, and DFID (2013) ‘USAID, DFID, and SDC to explore collaboration on inclusive markets’ [online], Microlinks <https://www.microlinks.org/learning-marketplace/news/usaid-dfid-and-sdc-explore-collaboration-inclusive-markets> [accessed 11 March 2016].

Van De Sijpe, N. (2012) ‘Is foreign aid fungible? Evidence from the education and health sectors’, The World Bank Economic Review 27(2): 320–56.

Wolf, P., Egalite, A.J. and Dixon, P. (2015) ‘Private school choice in developing countries: experimental results from Delhi, India’, in P. Dixon, S. Humble, and C. Counihan (eds), Handbook of International Development and Education, Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar Publishing.

Akvorsr (2015) ‘Northern Uganda Wash Alliance Project’ [online] <http://rsr.akvo.org/project/451/> [accessed 11 March 2016].

Altinyelken, H.K. (2013) ‘Teachers’ principled resistance to curriculum change: a compelling case from Turkey’, in A. Verger, H.K. Altinyelken, and M. de Koning (eds), Global Managerial Education Reforms and Teachers, pp. 109–26, Brussels: Education International Research Institute.

Andrabi, T., Das, J. and Khwaja, A.Z. (2015) Delivering Education: A Pragmatic Framework for Improving Education in Low-Income Countries, Policy Research working paper no. WPS 7277, Washington, DC: World Bank Group.

Angrist, J., Bettinger, E. and Kremer, M. (2006) ‘Long-term educational consequences of secondary school vouchers: evidence from administrative records in Colombia’, The American Economic Review 96(3): 847–62.

Baker, L. and Bernstein, H. (2012) The Impact of School Buildings on Student Health and Performance: A Call for Research, New York: McGraw-Hill Research Foundation.

Banerji, R., Bhattacharjea, S. and Wadhwa, W. (2014) ‘The Annual Status of Education Report (ASER)’, Research in Comparative and International Education 8: 387–96.

Bangay, C. and Latham, M. (2013) ‘Are we asking the right questions? Moving beyond the state vs. non-state providers debate: reflections and a case study from India’, International Journal of Educational Development 33: 244–52.

Birdsall, N., Levine, R. and Ibrahim, A. (2005) ‘Towards universal primary education: investments, incentives, and institutions’, European Journal of Education 40: 337–49.

Birdsall, N., Savedoff, W.D., Mahgoub, A. and Vyborny, K. (2010) Cash On Delivery: A New Approach to Foreign Aid, Washington, DC: CGD Books.

Boissiere, M. (2004) Determinants of Primary Education Outcomes in Developing Countries, Washington, DC: World Bank, Independent Evaluation Group (IEG).

Bonner, R., Das, P., Kalra, R., Leathes, B. and Wakeham, N. (2011) Delivering Cost Effective and Sustainable School Infrastructure, London: TI-UP Resource Centre.

Colclough, C. (1996) ‘Education and the market: which parts of the neoliberal solution are correct?’ World Development 24: 589–610.

Colclough, C. (1997) Marketizing Education and Health in Developing Countries: Miracle or Mirage? Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.

Day Ashley, L., Mcloughlin, C., Aslam, M., Engel, J., Wales, J. and Rawal, S. (2014) The Role and Impact of Private Schools in Developing Countries: A Rigorous Review of the Evidence, Final report, Education Rigorous Literature Review (EPPI-Centre reference No 2206), London: Department for International Development.

Deininger, K. (2003) ‘Does cost of schooling affect enrolment by the poor? Universal primary education in Uganda’, Economics of Education Review 22: 291–305.

Dixon, P. (2013) International Aid and Private Schools for the Poor: Smiles, Miracles and Markets, London: Edward Elgar Publishing.

DFID and SDC (eds) (2008) The Operational Guide for the Making Markets Work for the Poor (M4P) Approach, Stockholm: SDC and London: DFID.

ESSPIN (2008) An Assessment of the Development Needs of Teachers in Nigeria: Kwara State Case Study, Lagos: ESSPIN.

Feyzioglu, T., Swaroop, V. and Zhu, M. (1998) ‘A panel data analysis of the fungibility of foreign aid’, The World Bank Economic Review 12: 29–58.

Fine, B. and Hall, D. (2012) ‘Terrains of neoliberalism: constraints and opportunities for alternative models of service delivery’, in D. McDonald and G. Ruiters (eds.), Alternatives to Privatization: Public Options for Essential Services in the Global South, pp. 45–70, London: Routledge; Pretoria: HSRC.

Forster, G. (2011) A Win-Win Solution: The Empirical Evidence on School Choice, Indianapolis: The Friedman Foundation for Education Choice.

Fullan, M. and Watson, N. (2000) ‘School-based management: reconceptualizing to improve learning outcomes’, School Effectiveness and School Improvement 11: 453–73.

Glewwe, P. and Kremer, M. (2006) ‘Schools, teachers, and education outcomes in developing countries’, in E. Hanushek (ed.), Handbook of the Economics of Education 2, pp. 945–1017, London: Elsevier.

Global Initiative for Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (2013) ‘Parallel Report submitted by the Coalition Marocaine pour l’Éducation pour Tous, the Global Initiative for Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and Sylvain Aubry to the Pre-sessional Working Group of the Committee on the Rights of the Child on the occasion of the consideration of the List of Issues related to the Third and Fourth Periodic Reports of Morocco during the Committee’s 67th Session’ [pdf] <http://tbinternet.ohchr.org/Treaties/CRC/Shared%20Documents/MAR/INT_CRC_NGO_MAR_16428_E.pdf> [accessed 13 March 2016].

Greene, J. (2001) ‘Vouchers in Charlotte’, Education Matters 1(2): 55–60.

Härmä, J. and Adefisayo, F. (2013) ‘Scaling up: the challenges facing low-fee private schools in the slums of Lagos, Nigeria’, in P. Srivastava (ed.), Low-Fee Private Schooling: Aggravating Equity or Mediating Disadvantage? pp. 129–51, Oxford: Symposium Books.

Hitchins, R., Elliott, D. and Gibson, A. (2004) ‘Making business service markets work for the rural poor: a review of experience’, Small Enterprise Development 16: 10–23.

Howell W.G. and Peterson, P.E. (2003) The Education Gap: Vouchers and Urban Schools, Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press.

Kadzamira, E. and Rose, P. (2003) ‘Can free primary education meet the needs of the poor? Evidence from Malawi’, International Journal of Educational Development 23: 501–16.

King, K. (2013) ‘Education and development in the post-2015 landscapes’, Norrag News 49.

Kingdon, G.G. (1996) ‘Private schooling in India: size, nature, and equity-effects’, Economic and Political Weekly 3306–14.

Kitaev, I. (1999) Private Education in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Re-Examination of Theories and Concepts Related to Its Development and Finance. Mechanisms and Strategies of Educational Finance, Paris: IIEP/UNESCO.

Kolb, D.A. (2014) Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Ladd, H.F. (2002) ‘School vouchers: a critical view’, Journal of Economic Perspectives 16(4): 3–24.

Ladd, H. and Loeb, S. (2013) ‘The challenges of measuring school quality’, Education, Justice, and Democracy 19: 22–55.

Lockheed, M. (2008) Measuring Progress with Tests of Learning: Pros and Cons for ‘Cash on Delivery Aid’ in Education, Working Paper 147, Washington, DC: Center for Global Development.

Lockheed, M. and Hanushek, E. (1988) ‘Improving educational efficiency in developing countries: what do we know?’ Compare 18(1): 21–38.

Mcewan, P.J. and Carnoy, M. (2000) ‘The effectiveness and efficiency of private schools in Chile’s voucher system’, Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis 22: 213–39.

Macpherson, I., Robertson, S. and Walford, G. (2014) Education, Privatisation and Social Justice: Case Studies from Africa, South Asia and South East Asia, Oxford: Symposium Books Ltd.

Muralidharan, K. and Sundararaman, V. (2015) ‘The aggregate effect of school choice: evidence from a two-stage experiment in India’, Quarterly Journal of Economics 130(3): 1011–66 <http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/qje/qjv013>.

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